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Группа авторов. A Companion to the Achaemenid Persian Empire, 2 Volume Set
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD
Ancient History
Literature and Culture
A COMPANION TO THE ACHAEMENID PERSIAN EMPIRE
Notes on Contributors
SECTION I. INTRODUCTION
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
REFERENCES
NOTES
CHAPTER 1 Geography and Climate
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 2 Demoscopy and Demography
Object of Research and Method
The Sources and Their Relevance
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 3 Peoples and Languages
Introduction: The Territory of the Achaemenid Empire
The Internal Ethnic Diversity of the Achaemenid Empire. In the Achaemenid Royal Ideology
Peoples and Languages in Elamite, Babylonian, and Greek Texts. Elamite Texts
Babylonian Texts
Greek Texts
The Languages of the Achaemenid Empire: An Overview
Language and Administration in the Achaemenid Empire
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 4 Languages and Script
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 5 Onomastics
Personal Names: Evidence
Iranian Names
Particulars
Non‐Iranian Names
Geographical Names
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 6 The Inscriptions of the Achaemenids
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 7 Elamite Sources
Introduction
Elamite Language
Royal Inscriptions
Administrative Texts
Seal Inscriptions
Elamite Sources of Old Iranian
Variation and Contact
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 8 Babylonian Sources
Introduction
Survey of Archival Texts. Sippar
Babylon
Borsippa
Cutha
Kiš/ursagkalama
Isin
Kissik
Dilbat
Nippur
Ur
Uruk
Larsa
Varia
Library Texts
Conclusions
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 9 Aramaic Sources
Achaemenid Official Aramaic
Documentary Texts
Literary Compositions
Aftermath
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 10 Biblical Sources
Epigraphical Sources
Literary Sources
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTE
CHAPTER 11 Phoenician Sources
The Inscriptions of the Four Main Phoenician Cities
Other Inscriptions from the Levantine Seashore
Inscriptions from Cyprus
Other Inscriptions from the Persian Empire
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTE
CHAPTER 12 Egyptian Sources
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 13 Lydian, Carian, and Lycian Sources
Persians on Lycian, Lydian, and Carian Inscriptions
Historic and Prosopographic Notes on the Lycian Evidence
Conclusion
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 14 Greek and Latin Sources
Introduction
From the Eve of the Persian Wars to the Peloponnesian War
From the Peloponnesian War to Alexander
From the Hellenistic Age to the Roman Empire
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 15 Persia (including Khūzestān)
Pasargadae, the First Royal Residence
Persepolis, a Permanent Building Site
Western Fars and the Persepolis‐Susa Road
The Foothills and the Eastern Plain of Khūzestān
Susa, the Choice of Darius Between Persepolis and Babylon
Cult Places and Burial Customs
Artifacts
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTE
CHAPTER 16 Media
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 17 Babylonia and Assyria
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 18 Syria
Introduction
City Layout and Architecture. The Cities and the Ports
The Architecture
The Cemeteries
The Archeological Material
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 19 Cyprus
Persian Presence in Cyprus: The Architectural Evidence
Persian Influences on Cypriot Civilization: Emulation and Legitimization
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 20 Egypt
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 21 Asia Minor
Western Asia Minor
Northwest
Black Sea Area and Central Anatolia
Karia and Lycia
Cilicia and the Southeast/Middle Euphrates
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 22 Caucasus Region
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 23 The Empire's Northeast
Socioeconomic Context
Chronological Frame
Written Sources of the Achaemenid Period
Cities and Archeological Settlements
A Sogdian City from the Iron Age to the Hellenistic Period
Palaces
The Platforms
Religious Life
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 24 The Empire's Southeast
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 25 The Median Dilemma
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 26 Uraru
Assyrian Records on Uraru
Tušpa, Center of the Urartian Power: Sarduri I
Sarduri's Successor
The Religion as “Instrumentum Regni”
The Citadel of Van Kalesi and Its Historical Monuments
The Annals of Sarduri II in Hazine Kapisi (CTU A 9‐1‐3)
The War Between Rusa I and Sargon for the Control of Northwestern Iran
The Last Century of the Urartian History
Urartian Chronology
Last Records on Uraru
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTE
CHAPTER 27 From Assurbanipal to Cambyses
Introduction
General Aspects of Longue Durée Developments: Conquest and Growth of Empire
Dynasty and Succession
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTE
CHAPTER 28 Elamite Traditions
Introduction: The Elamite Foundations of the Persian Empire
Urban Landscape: Textual and Archeological Evidence
Religious Heritage: Divinities, Highland Ceremonies, and Funerary Practices
Artistic Heritage (i): Mudbrick Architecture and Vitreous Industries
Artistic Heritage (ii): New Discoveries
Concluding Remarks: The Legacy of Elam
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 29 The Great Conquests
The Evidence
History of Events
Reception and Accommodation
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 30 Imperial Crisis
Sources
The Triggering and the Course of the Crisis
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 31 The Establishment of the Achaemenid Empire: Darius I, Xerxes I, and Artaxerxes I
Sources and Perspectives
War and Conquest: Darius I (522–486 BCE) and Xerxes I (486–465 BCE)
Revolts
War and (Re)Conquest: Artaxerxes I (465–424 BCE)
Steady State of Empire
Court and Architecture
Some Concluding Remarks: Changes and Achievements
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 32 From Darius II to Darius III
Darius II (423–405/4 BCE)
Artaxerxes II (405/4–359/8 BCE)
Artaxerxes III (359/8–338 BCE)
The Transition to Darius III
Darius III (336–330 BCE)
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTE
CHAPTER 33 The Conquest by Alexander
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 34 Pārsa and Ūja
The Center of the Empire
Source Problems
Specific Events
The Designing of the Imperial Center
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 35 Media
Remarks on Media's Position in the Achaemenid Empire and on Median Ethnicity
Administering Media
Media as Part of the Imperial Economy and Inter‐Provincial Communication
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 36 Babylon
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 37 The Persian Gulf
Introduction
The Persian Gulf and Its Iranian Islands
The Achaemenid Presence on the Arabian Islands
The Persian Gulf as a Maritime Highway for the Transmission of Knowledge
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 38 The Arabian World
Arabia
The Qedarite Kingdom
The Borders of Arabia
Arabs in Persian Sources
The Oasis of Taymāʼ During the Achaemenid Period by Arnulf Hausleiter. Regional and Local Historical Framework
Taymāʼ
Archeological Data
Iconography
Tombstones/Funerary Stelae
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 39 Egypt
Conquest
Rule and Insurrections
The Struggle for Keeping Independence
The Second Persian Rule
Later Reflections on Persian Rule
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 40 Nubia
Nubia
Archeological and Written Evidence in Nubia 525–330 BCE
Interaction Between Nubia and Achaemenid Persia
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 41 The Cyrenaica
Introductory Remarks
Cyrenaica Before the Persian Conquest
Persian Rule Over the Cyrenaica
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 42 The Levant
The Levant and the Persian Empire
People of the Levant
Competitors and Allies
The Levant in the Satrapy “Trans‐Euphrates”
The Phoenician City‐States
The Landlocked Provinces
Trade and Products
The Levantine Contributions to the Persian Army
Change of Rule
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 43 Asia Minor
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 44 Cyprus and the Mediterranean
Sources
Political Events and Situations
The Island, Its Economy, People, and Political Structure
Greeks and Phoenicians in Cyprus: A Peculiar Discussion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 45 The Greek World
Traditional Interpretations and Source Issues
Greeks, Lydians, and Persians in Asia Minor – The Problem of the “Vassal‐Tyrants”
The Ionian Revolt
The Reorganization of Persian Rule After the Ionian Revolt and the Problem of Darius I's Reforms
The So‐called Persian Wars and the Delian League
The Consequences of the Peloponnesian War – Greeks and Persians at the Beginning of the Fourth Century BCE
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 46 Macedonia
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 47 Thrace
Achievements in European Thrace Predating Darius' Scythian Campaign
Darius' Scythian Campaign (513/12 BCE)
Megabazus' Undertakings in Thrace (c. 512–499 BCE)
The Ionian Revolt (499–493 BCE)
A New Persian Offensive (493–490 BCE) and the Consequences of Marathon
Xerxes' Expedition Against Greece: Preparation, Start, and Failure, Followed by Persian Retreat (484/3–478 BCE)
Persia and Thrace after the Founding of the Delian League (c. 477–c. 465 BCE)
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 48 The Northern Black Sea
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 49 The Caucasus Region
The History of the Caucasus Region According to Primary and Secondary Sources
Archeological Evidence for Persian Rule
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 50 The Nomads of the Steppes
Nomads and Nomadism: Ancient Sources vs. Modern Definitions
The Steppe Region: Nomads and Sedentaries in Contact
Campaigns of Achaemenid Kings in the Steppe Region and the Localization of the Saka Provinces
Fragments of Information on the History and Administration of the Steppe Area During Achaemenid Times
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 51 The Iranian East
Environment
Problem of Sources
The Establishment of Achaemenid Rule in Eastern Iran
Eastern Iran and the Accession of Darius I
Achaemenid Rule in the Iranian East During the Reigns of Darius I and Xerxes I
The Iranian East from Artaxerxes I to Darius III
The End of Achaemenid Rule in the Iranian East
Regional Overview. Bactria (Bāxtriš)
Sogdiana (Suguda)
Margiana (Marguš)
Choresmia (Uvārazmī or Uvārazmiš)
Parthia (Parthava) and Hyrcania (Varkāna)
Aria (Haraiva)
Drangiana (Zranka)
Arachosia (Harauvatiš)
Paropamisadae and Gandāra
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 52 India
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
chapter 53 Roads and Communication
Introduction: The Sources
Development and Extension of the Road Network
The Network of Royal Roads: The Textual Record
Royal and Ancillary Roads
The Institutional Perspective: Persis, Bactria, Palestine, and Egypt
Archeological Evidence
Means of Communication
Communication and Connectivity
The Extent and the Borders of the Known World
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 54 The Interplay of Languages and Communication
Mixing of Populations, Mixing of Languages
The Art of Translation
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 55 Achaemenid Art – Art in the Achaemenid Empire
Summary
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 56 Seals and Sealing
Introduction
The Evidence
Persepolis
Susa
Daskyleion
Memphis
Correspondence of Aršāma
Unprovenanced Clay “Tags”
Wadi ed‐Daliyeh, Samaria
Babylonia
Ur
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 57 Royal Coinage
Introduction: Coins in Context
Lydia: From the Cradle of Coinage to the Coinage of an Empire
Iran: Coining and Communicating an Imperial Ideology
Greece: From Persepolis to the Parthenon
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 58 Empire, Borders, and Ideology
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
BLACKWELL COMPANIONS TO THE ANCIENT WORLD
Ancient History
Literature and Culture
A COMPANION TO THE ACHAEMENID PERSIAN EMPIRE
Notes on Contributors
CHAPTER 59 Satrapal Administration
The Term Satrap in Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions
The Meaning of the Terms Satrap and Satrapy
The Sources. Sources for an Empire‐Wide Administration
Sources on Local Bureaucracies
Pathways to the Design of an Overall Picture. Methodology
The Administrative Hierarchy
Satrapal Administration
On the Duties of the Satraps
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
SIGLA
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 60 Hierarchy and ethno‐classe dominante
Hierarchy
The Persian Elite
Local Elites
A Multiethnic Elite
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 61 Deportations
General Remarks
The Sources (and Their Problems)
Fundamentals of Achaemenid Deportation Practice
Deportations in the Assyrian and Persian Empires: A Comparison
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 62 Persia
Introduction
Archives from Persepolis
From Umulumāʾ to Parnakka
From Rām Hormoz to Nīrīz
From Parnakka to Peucestes
Treasurers and Commanders
Institutional Hierarchy
Epilogue
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 63 Babylonia
General Outlines: Power Negotiation, Elite Management, and Administration
Power Relationships: The Babylonian Administration and Their King
Inheriting a State: The Administrative Takeover of the Neo‐Babylonian Empire by the Persians
The Governor (Satrap) of Babylonia
Showcasing Imperial Power
Local Administrative Structures in Babylonia. The Phase of Transition
Revenue and Control
The King's New Men
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 64 Egypt
Administrative Hierarchy
The Satrap
High Administration
Local Administration
Specialized Administrations. Army, Justice, and Police
Fiscal System, Royal and Gods' Estates
Administration in Multicultural Context. Iranians, Egyptians, and Others
Writing, Aramaic, and Demotic
Satrap and Ethnic Clashes
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 65 Asia Minor
Officers and Vassals
Provinces
Activities and Responsibilities
Property of Land and Tribute
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 66 Bactria
Introduction
Sources
Administrative Procedures and Hierarchy
Economy and Taxation
Epilogue: The Hellenistic Period
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 67 Taxes and Tributes
Taxes and Tributes According to the Classical Sources
Taxation and Service Obligations Under the Persians According to Babylonian Cuneiform Texts
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 68 Temple Economy
The Role of the King
Feeding the Gods
Feeding the Priesthood
Resources
The Workforce
Tilling the Land and Tending the Gardens
Animal Husbandry: Sheep and Cattle
Birds and Fish
Craftsmen
Tax and Corvée Obligations
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 69 Babylonian Entrepreneurs
Introduction
Sources
Overview
Limitations
Babylonian Entrepreneurs in the Empire
Interactions
A Microhistorical Approach
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 70 The Residences
The Residences in the Imperial Capitals. Foundations and Re‐foundations
A Metropolis, a Citadel, and “Empty Cities” Ecbatana
Pasargadae
Susa
Persepolis
Babylon
The Surroundings of the Residences
Function
Primary Sources
The Archeological Record
Classical Lore
The Residences in the Imperial Capitals – Conclusion
Other Residences
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 71 The Court
What Was the Persian “Court”?
Theater of Royalty: Court Ceremony and Etiquette
The Itinerant Court
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 72 King – Elites and Subjects – Slaves
Tribes
King
Elites
Subjects
Slaves
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 73 Banquet and Gift Exchange
Research Context
The King as Receiver and Giver
Items of Exchange
The King's Table
Conspicuous Consumption and Competitive Gift‐Giving
Evaluating Importance
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 74 Clothes and Insignia
The Riding Costume
The Court Robe
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 75 Jurisdiction
The King as Lawgiver and Judge
The Role of the Satrap
Local Jurisdiction: The Case of Babylonia
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 76 Diplomacy
Ambassadors, Arbiters, and Envoys
The Conduct of Intercourse and Negotiations
Travel to and from the Achaemenid Court
Protocol
Bridging Language Barriers and Diplomacy
Xenia
Dexiae
Gifts
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 77 Hunting and Leisure Activities
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 78 Gender and Sex
Theoretical and Methodical Considerations
Synthesis of the Current Scholarship and Aims of this Chapter
Writing About Sexual Differences: The Literary Sources
Sexual Differences and Gender in Script, Language, and Grammar
Concepts of Royal Manliness
Concepts of Elitist Femininity: Women in the Royal Milieu
Concepts of Subordinated Manliness: Members of the Elite
Concepts of Subordinated Masculinity and Femininity: Ordinary Persians
Manliness and Femininity in the Persian Empire: The View of Greek and Latin Authors
Concepts of Royal Manliness
The Concept of Elitist Femininity: Women in the Royal Milieu
The Concept of Subordinated Manliness: The Nobleman Who is Not the King
Impressions of Subordinated Manliness and Femininity: Ordinary Persians
Effeminates and Eunuchs: A Cause for Friction in Western Perceptions
Summary and Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 79 Legitimization of War
Royal Ideology
The Duties of the King
The Conquest of Greece
The Interests of Persia
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 80 Structure of the Army and Logistics
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 81 Military Organization and Equipment
General Considerations
Basic Clothing
Offensive Weapons
Defensive Weapons
The Elements of an Army
Fleet
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 82 Mercenaries
Introduction
Geographical Location
Date Range and Early Patterns of Use
Ethnicity
Numbers
Mercenary Employment Relations
Types, Combinations, and Contexts of Use
Strengths and Weaknesses
Persian Dependence on Greek Mercenaries
The Overall Incidence of Mercenary Use
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 83 The Religion of the Achaemenid Rulers
Three Styles of Religion at the Achaemenid Court
The Imperial Style of Religion Among the Achaemenids
The Achaemenid Kings Speaking About Their Religion
The Familial Style of Religion Among the Achaemenids
The Dynastic Style of Religion Among the Achaemenids
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 84 The Achaemenids and the Avesta
Preliminary Considerations
Zoroastrianism or Non‐Zoroastrianism?
What Are We Comparing?
Der liebe Gott steckt im Detail
The Invisible Ceremony
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 85 The Heartland Pantheon
Introduction
The Divine World of Achaemenid Pārsa
Humban (6455+/6585+ l.; 32 Attestations)
Uramasda (2171+/2331+ l.; 13 Attestations)
Mišdušiš (2095+/2095+ l.; 7 Attestations)
Napiriša (1880+/1920+ l.; 26 Attestations)
Adad (1715+/1775+ l.; 12 Attestations)
Išpandaramattiš (900+/900+ l.; 9 Attestations) and Earth (210/210 l.; 3 Attestations)
Mariraš (450+/450+ l.; 8 Attestations)
Šetrabattiš (330/330 l.; 5 Attestations)
Pirdakamiya (270/270 l.; 3 Attestations)
Narišanka (270/270 l.; 5 Attestations)
Zarnama (120/120 l.; 1 Attestation)
Other Deities
Deities Not Mentioned in the PFA
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 86 Practice of Worship in the Achaemenid Heartland
Terminology
Cultic Personnel
Sacred Space: Temples
Sacred Space: Mountains and Rivers
The Fruits of the Fields
Terms for Specific Rites
All the Gods
Royal and Funerary Cults
Sacrificial Feasts and Other Festivals
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 87 Funerary Customs
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 88 Religions in the Empire
The “Political” Zoroastrianism of the Achaemenid Rulers
The Achaemenids and the Religions of the Empire
Elam
Mesopotamia
The Province Jehud and the Jews in Elephantine
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 89 Schools, Erudition, and Wisdom
Oral Education and Knowledge Transmission
Education and Script
Cuneiform Script and the Role of the Elamite
Alphabetic Script – the History of Aramaic
Erudition and Wisdom
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTE
CHAPTER 90 Astronomy and Astrology
Introduction
The Calendar
Astronomical Observations
Predictive and Theoretical Astronomy
Astrology
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 91 Persian “Enlightenment”
Introduction
The Historical Background
“Enlightenment”
Sources for the Pre‐Socratics
What Is New in Pre‐Socratic Philosophy?
Philosophy, Science, Enlightenment, and the Disenchantment of the World
Early Greek Philosophy and the Ancient Near East
Outlook
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 92 Physicians and Medicine
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Notes
CHAPTER 93 Techniques of Art and Architecture
Ceramics and Firing Techniques
Mudbrick Architecture
Stone
Timber
Glass
Textile and Textile Productions
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 94 Statuary and Relief
Scope and Nature of the Evidence
Trends and Approaches
Pasargadae, Founded by Cyrus II
The Bisitun Monument of Darius I
Naqsh‐i Rustam
Persepolis and Susa
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 95 The Minor Arts
Introduction
Achaemenid Glyptic
Metalware
Jewelry
Other Minor Arts
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 96 Poetry, Music, and Dance
NOTES
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 97 The Perspectives of Greek and Latin Sources
The Place of the Achaemenid Empire in a Global‐Historical Perspective
The Portrayal of the “Great” Kings from Cyrus to Xerxes
Stereotype in the Portrayal of the Great King
The Ambivalences in the Portrayal of the Military Powers and the Economic Resources
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 98 “Perserie”
Introduction
Perserie in Athens (M.C. Miller)
Perserie in Macedonia (S.A. Paspalas)
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 99 Jewish Perspectives on Persia
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 100 Perspectives in Europe in the Middle Ages and the Modern Era
Introduction
The Influence of the Alexander Romance
Cast into the Role of the Enemy
Persian Great Kings as exempla
Persian Kings in the Bible
Excitement for the Ancient Persian Empire
Conclusions
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 101 Heirs of the Achaemenid Empire:: Seleucids, Arsacids, and Sasanians
The Seleucids
Persis
The Arsacids
The Sasanians
NOTES
REFERENCES
CHAPTER 102 The Perception in Iran in the Medieval and Modern Era
Introduction
Medieval Period. The Time of the Caliphs
Thousand Nights and One Night
The Epic of Kings
From the Šāhnāmeh to the Ṣeljūqs
Modern Period. From the Ṣafavīds to the Zand Period
Qājār Period
Pahlavī Period
Islamic Republic of Iran
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 103 Popular Culture and Its Traditions
Staging the Achaemenids: Movies, Comics, Opera, Drama, and Propaganda
Achaemenids Between External and Self‐Perception
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 104 The Achaemenid Empire and Forgery: Inscriptions
Various Tablets
Weapons
Vessels
Wooden Coffin
Gobelin‐Like Carpet
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 105 The Achaemenid Empire and Forgery: Material Culture
NOTE
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 106 Western Europe
Chronological Survey. The Beginning of Modern Research
Research in the Early Twentieth Century
Research in the Postwar Period 1945–1980
Continuity and Change in the 1980s
A New Synthesis: Pierre Briant and The Discipline of Achaemenid Studies
Research After 1996
Scholarship in Different Countries
United Kingdom
Belgium and the Netherlands
France
Scandinavia
Germany
Austria
Switzerland
Italy
Research by Theme and Type of Publication
Research into Specific Classical Authors
The Persae of Aeschylus
Herodotus
Ctesias
Research on Xenophon
Research on Diodorus
Lives of Alexander
Research on Plutarch
Minor Authors
Archaeological Research
Numismatic Research
Journals and Serial Publications
Online Resources
Conferences and Exhibitions
Conclusion
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
NOTES
CHAPTER 107 The USA
Introduction
Language/Text/History
Babylonian, Elamite, Old Persian
Aramaic and Hebrew Bible Studies
Indo‐Iranian/Avestan
Egyptian
Classical Languages
Historical Overviews
Archeology and the Material/Visual Record
Mesopotamia
Anatolia
Egypt
Israel/Palestine
Arabia/Nabataea
Northern and Eastern Imperial Frontiers
Armenia
Iran
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 108 Eastern Europe
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 109 Iran
The Early Iranian Concept of the Achaemenid Empire
The Modern Era, the Nineteenth Century, and the Early Iranian Excavations
1900–1939
1945–1979
1979–2010
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
CHAPTER 110 The Achaemenid Empire: Realm of Tyranny or Founder of Human Rights?
Introductory Remarks
Cyrus II, King of Persia: Founder of an Empire, “Wise Prince,” and “Immoderate Ruler”
A “Forgotten Empire” of a Special Quality? The Achaemenid Empire in an Ancient Near Eastern and Greek Perspective
Ancient Iran in Today’s Iran
REFERENCES
FURTHER READING
Names of Persons and Deities
Topo‐ and Ethnonyms
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