Оглавление
Robin Spence. Why do buildings collapse in earthquakes? Building for safety in seismic areas
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Why Do Buildings Collapse in Earthquakes? Building for Safety in Seismic Areas
Acknowledgements
1 Introduction: Why This Book. 1.1 Earthquakes – An Underrated Hazard
1.2 Earthquakes, Buildings, People
1.3 The Authors' Experience of Earthquake Risk Assessment
1.4 Aims of This Book
1.5 Outline of the Book
References
2 How Do Buildings Behave in Earthquakes? 2.1 Learning from Earthquakes
2.2 Significant Earthquakes Since 2000. 2.2.1 The 26.1.2001 Bhuj Earthquake: Mw7.7, 13 481 Deaths
2.2.2 The 26.12.2003 Bam Earthquake: Mw6.6, about 27 000 Deaths
2.2.3 The 26.12.2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami: Mw = 9.1, 225 841 Deaths
2.2.4 The 8.10.2005 Kashmir Earthquake in Pakistan: Mw = 7.6, 73 338 Deaths
2.2.5 The 27.5.2006 Yogyakarta Earthquake: Mw6.3, 5778 Deaths
2.2.6 The 12.5.2008 Wenchuan Earthquake: Mw7.9, 87 476 Deaths
2.2.7 The 12.1.2010 Haiti Earthquake: Mw7.0, Estimated More Than 222 000 Deaths
2.2.8 The 22.2.2011 Christchurch New Zealand Earthquake: Mw6.1, 181 Deaths
2.2.9 The 11.3.2011 Great Tohoku Japan Earthquake: Mw9.1, Over 18000 Deaths and Missing
2.2.10 The 25.4.2015 Gorkha Nepal Earthquake: Mw7.8, 8831 Deaths
2.3 What Can We Learn from These Significant Earthquakes?
2.4 Earthquake Losses in Rich and Poor Countries
2.5 Are Earthquake Losses Decreasing Over Time?
References
3 How are Buildings Constructed in Earthquake Zones?
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Built Form, Climate and Earthquake Resistance
3.2.1 Buildings for (Equatorial) Warm Humid Climates (Zone A)
3.2.2 Buildings for Arid Climates (Zone B)
3.2.3 Buildings for Warm Temperate Climates (Zone C)
3.2.4 Mismatches Between Climatic Response and Seismic Resistance
3.3 Building Construction Types by Earthquake Zone. 3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Zone 1: Southern Europe (Italy, Greece and Romania)
3.3.3 Zone 2: West Asia (Turkey and Iran)
3.3.4 Zone 3: South Asia (India, Pakistan and Nepal)
Box 3.1 Profile: Randolph Langenbach. Randolph Langenbach: conservation of earthquake‐resistant vernacular architecture
3.3.5 Zone 4: China
3.3.6 Zone 5: Japan
3.3.7 Zone 6: South East Asia (Indonesia and the Philippines)
3.3.8 Zone 7: New Zealand
3.3.9 Zone 8: South America (Chile, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia)
3.3.10 Zone 9: Central America (Mexico, Guatemala and El Salvador) and the Caribbean
3.3.11 Zone 10: California
3.4 Summary
References
4 What Happens in an Earthquake?
4.1 What is an Earthquake?
4.2 Volcanic Earthquakes and Induced Seismicity
4.3 How Earthquakes Travel through Different Media
4.3.1 Response of Buildings to Earthquakes
4.3.1.1 Case of Mexico City
4.3.2 Liquefaction
4.3.3 Lateral Spreading
4.4 Secondary Hazards
4.4.1 Landslides
4.4.1.1 Tsunamis
Box 4.1 Profile: Toshitaka Katada. Professor Toshitaka Katada: The Miracle of Kamaishi
4.4.2 Fire‐Following Earthquake
4.5 Compound Threats
References
5 How Do Different Forms of Construction Behave in Earthquakes? 5.1 Introduction: Range and Classification of Building Construction Types
5.2 Masonry Construction. 5.2.1 Adobe Construction
5.2.2 Stone Masonry Construction
Box 5.1 Profile: Laurie Baker. Laurie Baker – sustainable architecture for rural India
5.2.3 Unreinforced Brick and Block Masonry Construction
5.2.4 Confined and Reinforced Masonry Construction
5.3 Reinforced Concrete Construction
5.3.1 Reinforced Concrete Frame Construction
5.3.2 Reinforced Concrete Shear‐Wall Construction
5.4 Timber Frame Construction
5.4.1 Timber Stud‐Wall Construction
5.5 Steel Frame Construction
5.6 Comparing the Vulnerability of Different Construction Types
References
6 How is the Population Affected?
6.1 Causes of Earthquake Casualties
6.2 Casualties due to Building Collapses. 6.2.1 How are Occupants Affected?
6.2.2 Can Building Occupants Escape?
6.3 Survivability of an Occupant in a Building
6.3.1 How are People Trapped?
6.3.2 Falling Building Debris
6.4 Other Causes of Casualties
6.4.1 Tsunamis
6.4.2 Landslides
6.4.3 Liquefaction
6.4.4 Fire Following
6.5 How Can We Estimate the Number of Injured and Killed in an Earthquake?
6.5.1 Statistical Approaches to Earthquake Loss Modelling
6.5.2 Engineering‐Based Approaches
6.6 Estimating Fatalities Due to Building Collapses
6.6.1 Definition of Collapse
6.6.2 Estimating Fatalities Due to Falling Debris
6.7 Estimating Casualties from Secondary Hazards and Cascading Effects
6.8 The Way Forward
6.8.1 Data Collection
6.8.2 Rethinking Loss Models
6.8.3 Life‐Safety Designs
References
7 How Can Buildings Be Improved? 7.1 Introduction
7.2 Design of Engineered Buildings. 7.2.1 The Development of Earthquake Codes
7.2.2 Performance Objectives
7.2.3 Typical Code Requirements
7.2.4 Simplified Design Rules
7.2.5 Limitations of Codes
7.2.6 Failure of Codes in Developing Countries
7.3 Strengthening Existing Buildings
7.3.1 Strengthening School Buildings
7.3.2 OECD Programme: Scope and Principles
7.3.3 World Bank Programme; Scope and Principles
7.3.4 Global Progress in Achieving School Safety: Some Examples
7.3.4.1 California
7.3.4.2 Japan
7.3.4.3 Turkey
7.3.4.4 Colombia
7.3.4.5 Nepal
7.3.5 Summary
7.4 Building for Safety Programmes
7.4.1 NSET, Nepal
Box 7.1 Profile: Amod Dixit. Amod Dixit: earthquake technology in the service of the local community
7.4.2 NCPDP, Gujarat, India
Box 7.2 Profile: Rajendra and Rupal Desai. Rajendra and Rupal Desai: disaster‐resistant rural housing in India
7.4.3 Summary
7.5 Public Awareness of Earthquake Risk: Creating a Safety Culture
7.5.1 California: The Great Shakeout
7.5.2 Japan: Disaster Prevention Day
7.5.3 Europe: Developing and Assessing Earthquake Awareness Dissemination Programmes
7.5.4 Nepal: Awareness Raising
7.5.4.1 Summary
References
8 Successes and Failures in Earthquake Protection: A Country Comparison. 8.1 Introduction: The survey
8.2 High Achievers. 8.2.1 California
8.2.2 Japan
8.2.3 New Zealand
8.2.4 Chile
8.3 Limited Achievers. 8.3.1 Greece
8.3.2 Italy
8.3.3 Romania
8.3.4 Turkey
8.3.5 Slovenia and Serbia
8.3.6 Portugal and Spain
8.3.7 Australia
8.3.8 China
8.3.9 Mexico
8.4 Continuing and Growing Risks. 8.4.1 Colombia and Ecuador
8.4.2 Indonesia
8.4.3 Nepal
8.4.4 India
8.4.5 The Caribbean
8.4.6 Other Countries with Growing Risks
8.5 Country Comparison of Unsafe Structures
8.6 Comparison of the Country Groups. 8.6.1 High Achievers
8.6.2 Limited Achievers
8.6.3 Continuing and Growing Risks
Acknowledgements
References
9 The Way Forward: What Part Can Different Actors Play? 9.1 International Agencies and Global Initiatives
9.2 Governments
9.2.1 Maintaining Professional Standards
9.2.2 Funding Scientific Research
9.2.3 Education
9.2.4 Working with the Private Sector
9.3 Businesses and Organisations
9.3.1 Risk Assessment
9.3.2 Mitigation Plan
9.3.2.1 Safe Workplace
9.4 Homeowners and Individual Citizens. 9.4.1 Safe Home
9.4.2 Securing Contents and Utilities
9.4.3 Preparing for an Earthquake
9.4.4 Advocacy for Government Action
Box 9.1 Profile Dr Tracy Monk. Dr Tracy Monk: advocacy for school seismic safety
9.5 Scientists and Engineers
Box 9.2 Profile: Edward Ng. Ng Yan Yung, Edward: innovative earthen architecture for rural China
Box 9.3 Profile: Lucy Jones. Lucy Jones: raising public earthquake awareness
9.6 NGOs
9.7 Insurers
9.7.1 New Zealand Earthquake Commission
9.7.2 Turkish Catastrophe Insurance Pool (TCIP)
9.7.3 California Earthquake Authority (CEA)
9.7.4 Micro‐insurance
9.8 The Way Forward
9.8.1 Understanding Risk
9.8.2 Communicating Risk
9.8.3 Incentivising Risk Reduction
References
Index. a
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