An Introduction to Sociolinguistics

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Ronald Wardhaugh. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List of Illustrations

Guide

Pages

Blackwell Textbooks in Linguistics

AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLINGUISTICS

List of Figures

List of Tables

Acknowledgments

About the Companion Website

1 Introduction. KEY TOPICS

The Nature of Language

Knowledge of Language

Competence and performance

Exploration 1.1 Grammatical Judgments

Variation

Exploration 1.2 Variation in Greetings

Variants and the linguistic variable

Language Users and Their Groups: Identities

Exploration 1.3 Identities

Language and Culture

Directions of influence

The Whorfian hypothesis

Exploration 1.4 Translatability

Correlations

The Interdisciplinary Legacy of Sociolinguistics

Overview of the Book

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

2 Languages, Dialects, and Varieties. KEY TOPICS

What is a Language?

Language or Dialect?

Mutual intelligibility

The role of social identity

Exploration 2.1 Dialects

Standardization

The standard as an abstraction

Exploration 2.2 What is the Standard?

The standardization process

The standard and language change

Standard language?

The standard–dialect hierarchy

Regional Dialects

Dialect geography

Everyone has an accent

Exploration 2.3 The Standard and Accents

Social Dialects

Kiezdeutsch ‘neighborhood German’

Ethnic dialects

African American Vernacular English

Features of AAVE

Development of AAVE

Societal aspects of AAVE use

Styles and Indexes: The Social Meanings of Linguistic Forms

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

3 Defining Groups. KEY TOPICS

Speech Communities

Linguistic boundaries

Shared norms

Exploration 3.1 Acceptability Judgments

Communities of Practice

Social Networks

Exploration 3.2 Social Networks

Social Identities

Beliefs about Language and Social Groups

Language ideologies

The standard language ideology

The purist ideology

Monoglossic ideologies

Exploration 3.3 Slang

Iconicity, erasure, and recursivity

Language attitudes

Perceptual dialectology

Matched/verbal guises

Implicit association task (IAT)

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

4 Language in Context: Pragmatics. KEY TOPICS

Speech Acts

Performatives

Exploration 4.1 Form and Intent

Implicature

Maxims

Exploration 4.2 Implicature

Politeness

Face

Positive and negative politeness

Exploration 4.3 Politely Refusing an Invitation

Beyond politeness theory

Politeness and indirectness

Pronouns

Tu and vous: power and solidarity

Pronouns and positioning

Naming and Titles

Fluidity and change in address terms

Exploration 4.4 Naming and Family

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

5 Language Variation and Change. KEY TOPICS

Variables and Correlations

Types of linguistic variables

Indicators, markers, and stereotypes

Independent variables

Data Collection and Analysis

The observer’s paradox

The sociolinguistic interview

Sampling

Apparent time and real time

Doing Quantitative Research: What Do the Numbers Really Mean?

Regional Variation

Mapping dialects

Methods in dialectology

Dialect mixture and free variation

Exploration 5.1 Free Variation?

Linguistic atlases

Social Variation

Social class membership

Exploration 5.2 Social Class

The First Wave of Variation Studies

Early work on gender variation

The fourth floor

Exploration 5.3 Hypercorrection

Variation in Norwich

Variation in Detroit

Variation in Glasgow

Linguistic constraints on variation

Language Variation and Change

Change from above and below

Some changes in progress

Change across space: urban centers and physical barriers

Change over time or age‐grading?

Exploration 5.4 Youth Language

Martha’s Vineyard

Gender and language change

Language change and the linguistic marketplace

The Second Wave of Variation Studies

Social networks

Social network theory and language change

Exploration 5.5 Mobility and Language Change

Gender variation in the second wave

Jocks and burnouts

Exploration 5.6 Social Categories in High School

The Third Wave of Variation Studies

Stance, style, and identity

Change across the lifespan

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

6 Ethnographic Approaches in Sociolinguistics. KEY TOPICS

Ethnography: Participant Observation

Exploration 6.1 Insider/Outsider

The Ethnography of Communication

Communicative competence

The communicative event and communicative acts

The SPEAKING device

Exploration 6.2 Defining Gossip

Ethnography and beyond

Ethnomethodology

Background knowledge as part of communication

Commonsense knowledge and practical reasoning

Exploration 6.3 Classroom Language

Garfinkel and his students: studies in ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology and conversation analysis

Critical Ethnography

(Socio)linguistic Ethnography

Digital Ethnographies: Research in Online Communities

Ethnography in Combination with Other Sociolinguistic Methods

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

7 Discourse Analysis. KEY TOPICS

Conversation Analysis

Adjacency pairs

Openings

Closings

Exploration 7.1 Pre‐Sequences

Exploration 7.2 New Technology, Openings and Closings

Turn‐taking

Repair

Institutional talk

Membership categorization

Interactional Sociolinguistics

Data and methodologies

Exploration 7.3 What is Natural?

Contextualization and stance

Identities

Critical Discourse Analysis

Contrasts and critiques

Methodologies and connections

Exploration 7.4 ‘All Lives Matter’

Corpus Linguistics

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

8 Languages in Contact: Multilingual Societies and Multilingual Discourse. KEY TOPICS

Multilingualism as a Societal Phenomenon

Language competencies in multilingual societies

Language ideologies surrounding multilingualism

Linguistic landscapes

Language attitudes in multilingual settings

Exploration 8.1 Everyday Multilingualism

Language Maintenance and Shift

Diglossia

Domains

Language attitudes and ideologies

Language learning

The statuses of the H and L varieties

Extended diglossia and language maintenance

Questioning diglossia

Exploration 8.2 A Diglossic Situation?

Multilingual Discourse

Metaphorical and situational codeswitching

Communication accommodation theory

The markedness model

Exploration 8.3 The Unmarked Code in the Classroom

Multilingual identities

Exploration 8.4 Accommodation or Mockery?

Bricolage

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

9 Contact Varieties: Structural Consequences of Social Factors. KEY TOPICS

The Structure of Codeswitching

Loanwords and Calques

Exploration 9.1 Mixed‐up Labels

Convergence

Ethnicized and Social Dialects as Contact Varieties

Latinx Englishes

Straattaal ‘street language’

Mixed Languages

Lingua Francas

Exploration 9.2 Lingua Francas and Foreign Languages

Pidgin and Creole Languages: Definitions

Connections between P/C languages and second language acquisition

Creole Formation

Theories of creole genesis

Geographical Distribution

Linguistic Characteristics of P/C Languages

Phonology

Morphosyntax

Vocabulary

From Pidgin to Creole and Beyond

Creole continuum?

Exploration 9.3 Continua

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

10 Language, the Nation, and Beyond. KEY TOPICS

Language and Nation

Nationalism and language

Exploration 10.1 National repertoires

Language and national identity categories

Belonging beyond the nation

Language and Migration

Identity construction in the context of migration

Identity over time and space

Exploration 10.2 Mudes and chronotopes

Diversity and superdiversity

Discourses of migration and integration

Exploration 10.3 Terms

LADO

Language and Globalization

Global English: threat or promise?

Language and the Digital World

Exploration 10.4 Communicative Norms

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

11 Language, Gender, and Sexuality. KEY TOPICS

Defining Terms: Sex Category, Gender, and Sexuality

Exploration 11.1 Understandings of Sex and Gender

Sexist Language

Grammatical gender marking

Language change

Exploration 11.2 Guys and Dolls

Deficit, Dominance, and Difference

Women’s language as a deficit

Dominance

Difference

Gender and Sexuality Identities

Multiple identities

The role of hegemonic ideologies in gender and sexuality identity construction

Context‐specific identity construction: the workplace

Exploration 11.3 Labels

Discourses of Gender and Sexuality

Normative discourses

Discourses about language use

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

12 Sociolinguistics and Education. KEY TOPICS

Social Dialects and Education

Restricted codes and the language gap

Difference not deficit

Exploration 12.1 Who Should Adapt?

Role of the home dialect in education

An achievement gap?

Exploration 12.2 Sociolinguists at Large

Education in Multilingual Contexts

Ideologies

Use of minoritized languages in the classroom

Elite and immigrant bilingualism

Exploration 12.3 ‘Research Shows… ’

Education and World‐Wide English

Circles of English

English in world‐wide education

Elite closure

Exploration 12.4 Restricted Access

English in Europe

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

13 Language Policy and Planning. KEY TOPICS

Terminology, Concepts, and Development of the Field

Types of language planning

Exploration 13.1 Vernacularization and New Speakers

The intellectual history of LPP

Data and methods

LPP and Nationalization

LPP in Turkey: orthography and purity

Exploration 13.2 Language Rights

LPP in the Soviet Union and the post‐Soviet era: from Russification to nationalization

Official monolingualism in France

LPP in Post‐ and Neo‐Colonial Contexts

Kenya

India

Multilingual Countries and LPP

Canada

Belgium

Papua New Guinea

Singapore

Feminist Language Planning

Exploration 13.3 Language Reclaiming

Endangered Languages and the Spread of English

Endangered languages

Exploration 13.4 Why Should We Care?

Family language policy, new speakers, and LPP

English world‐wide

Language policy … or lack thereof

Chapter Summary

Exercises

Further Reading

References

Glossary

Index

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The books included in this series provide comprehensive accounts of some of the most central and most rapidly developing areas of research in linguistics. Intended primarily for introductory and post‐introductory students, they include exercises, discussion points and suggestions for further reading.

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Sociolinguistics has grown out of ideas presented by scholars from different traditions, most notably linguistics, sociology, and anthropology, although some key figures in its development also came from the field of education (see Wodak et al. 2011 for a more detailed overview of this). There is a general distinction between micro‐sociolinguistics and macro‐sociolinguistics (which has also been called the sociology of language). In this distinction, macro‐sociolinguistics includes such topics as language policy and planning, societal patterns of language use (especially in multilingual contexts) and intercultural communication, while micro‐sociolinguistics looks, as the name implies, at the smaller details of interactions – the structure of conversation, the use of specific linguistic variables and their variants, and the variation of these aspects of language across different social contexts.

A further distinction which is sometimes made is that between sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology. A number of scholars (Duranti 2003; Gumperz and Cook‐Gumperz 2008; Bucholtz and Hall 2008) have noted the fuzziness of the distinction between these two fields, arguing that there is considerable overlap in theory, themes, methodologies, and history. Ethnography of communication (which will be discussed in detail in chapter 6) has long been an area of overlap between these two fields (and others); this approach examines languages as a system of cultural behavior. Current approaches to the study of identities and language ideologies also blur the distinction between sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology. In chapter 6, we will discuss several ethnographic approaches which focus on language in society, including ethnography of communication. This is qualitative research and thus methodologically very different from quantitative variationist work; it also tends to address the question of the social meaning of language use less in terms of correlation with the social categories associated with the language user, and more in terms of how people use language to carry out their social lives (including but not limited to positioning themselves as members of particular social categories). Further, other approaches to discourse analysis (the broad term used to discuss methods that look at language use at a level beyond the utterance) which have similar aims will be introduced in chapter 7.

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