Оглавление
Stephen Rolt. Optical Engineering Science
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Optical Engineering Science
Preface
Glossary
About the Companion Website
1 Geometrical Optics. 1.1 Geometrical Optics – Ray and Wave Optics
1.2 Fermat's Principle and the Eikonal Equation
1.3 Sequential Geometrical Optics – A Generalised Description
1.3.1 Conjugate Points and Perfect Image Formation
1.3.2 Infinite Conjugate and Focal Points
1.3.3 Principal Points and Planes
1.3.4 System Focal Lengths
1.3.5 Generalised Ray Tracing
1.3.6 Angular Magnification and Nodal Points
1.3.7 Cardinal Points
1.3.8 Object and Image Locations - Newton's Equation
1.3.9 Conditions for Perfect Image Formation – Helmholtz Equation
1.4 Behaviour of Simple Optical Components and Surfaces. 1.4.1 General
1.4.2 Refraction at a Plane Surface and Snell's Law
1.4.3 Refraction at a Curved (Spherical) Surface
1.4.4 Refraction at Two Spherical Surfaces (Lenses)
1.4.5 Reflection by a Plane Surface
1.4.6 Reflection from a Curved (Spherical) Surface
1.5 Paraxial Approximation and Gaussian Optics
1.6 Matrix Ray Tracing. 1.6.1 General
1.6.2 Determination of Cardinal Points
1.6.3 Worked Examples
Worked Example 1.1 Thick Lens
Worked Example 1.2 Hubble Space Telescope
1.6.4 Spreadsheet Analysis
Further Reading
2 Apertures Stops and Simple Instruments. 2.1 Function of Apertures and Stops
2.2 Aperture Stops, Chief, and Marginal Rays
2.3 Entrance Pupil and Exit Pupil
Worked Example 2.1 Cooke Triplet
2.4 Telecentricity
2.5 Vignetting
2.6 Field Stops and Other Stops
2.7 Tangential and Sagittal Ray Fans
2.8 Two Dimensional Ray Fans and Anamorphic Optics
2.9 Optical Invariant and Lagrange Invariant
2.10 Eccentricity Variable
2.11 Image Formation in Simple Optical Systems
2.11.1 Magnifying Glass or Eye Loupe
2.11.2 The Compound Microscope
2.11.3 Simple Telescope
2.11.4 Camera
Further Reading
3 Monochromatic Aberrations. 3.1 Introduction
3.2 Breakdown of the Paraxial Approximation and Third Order Aberrations
3.3 Aberration and Optical Path Difference
3.4 General Third Order Aberration Theory
3.5 Gauss-Seidel Aberrations. 3.5.1 Introduction
3.5.2 Spherical Aberration
3.5.3 Coma
3.5.4 Field Curvature
3.5.5 Astigmatism
3.5.6 Distortion
3.6 Summary of Third Order Aberrations
3.6.1 OPD Dependence
3.6.2 Transverse Aberration Dependence
3.6.3 General Representation of Aberration and Seidel Coefficients
Further Reading
4 Aberration Theory and Chromatic Aberration. 4.1 General Points
4.2 Aberration Due to a Single Refractive Surface
4.2.1 Aplanatic Points
Worked Example 4.1Microscope Objective
4.2.2 Astigmatism and Field Curvature
4.3 Reflection from a Spherical Mirror
4.4 Refraction Due to Optical Components. 4.4.1 Flat Plate
Worked Example 4.2 Microscope Cover Slip
4.4.2 Aberrations of a Thin Lens
4.4.2.1 Conjugate Parameter and Lens Shape Parameter
4.4.2.2 General Formulae for Aberration of Thin Lenses
4.4.2.3 Aberration Behaviour of a Thin Lens at Infinite Conjugate
Worked Example 4.3 Best form Singlet
4.4.2.4 Aplanatic Points for a Thin Lens
Worked Example 4.4 Microscope Objective – Hyperhemisphere Plus Meniscus Lens
4.5 The Effect of Pupil Position on Element Aberration
4.6 Abbe Sine Condition
4.7 Chromatic Aberration. 4.7.1 Chromatic Aberration and Optical Materials
4.7.2 Impact of Chromatic Aberration
Worked Example 4.5 Lateral Chromatic Aberration and the Huygens Eyepiece
4.7.3 The Abbe Diagram for Glass Materials
4.7.4 The Achromatic Doublet
Worked Example 4.6 Simple Achromatic Doublet
4.7.5 Optimisation of an Achromatic Doublet (Infinite Conjugate)
Worked Example 4.7 Detailed Design of 200 mm Focal Length Achromatic Doublet
4.7.6 Secondary Colour
4.7.7 Spherochromatism
4.8 Hierarchy of Aberrations
Further Reading
5 Aspheric Surfaces and Zernike Polynomials. 5.1 Introduction
5.2 Aspheric Surfaces. 5.2.1 General Form of Aspheric Surfaces
5.2.2 Attributes of Conic Mirrors
Worked Example 5.1 Simple Mirror-Based Magnifier
5.2.3 Conic Refracting Surfaces
5.2.4 Optical Design Using Aspheric Surfaces
5.3 Zernike Polynomials. 5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Form of Zernike Polynomials
5.3.3 Zernike Polynomials and Aberration
5.3.4 General Representation of Wavefront Error
5.3.5 Other Zernike Numbering Conventions
Further Reading
6 Diffraction, Physical Optics, and Image Quality. 6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Eikonal Equation
6.3 Huygens Wavelets and the Diffraction Formulae
6.4 Diffraction in the Fraunhofer Approximation
6.5 Diffraction in an Optical System – the Airy Disc
Worked Example 6.1 Microscope Objective
6.6 The Impact of Aberration on System Resolution. 6.6.1 The Strehl Ratio
6.6.2 The Maréchal Criterion
6.6.3 The Huygens Point Spread Function
6.7 Laser Beam Propagation. 6.7.1 Far Field Diffraction of a Gaussian Laser Beam
Worked Example 6.3 – Beam Divergence of a Fibre Laser
6.7.2 Gaussian Beam Propagation
Worked Example 6.4 – Rayleigh Distance of Fibre Laser
6.7.3 Manipulation of a Gaussian Beam
Worked Example 6.5 – Gaussian Beam Manipulation
6.7.4 Diffraction and Beam Quality
6.7.5 Hermite Gaussian Beams
6.7.6 Bessel Beams
6.8 Fresnel Diffraction
6.9 Diffraction and Image Quality. 6.9.1 Introduction
6.9.2 Geometric Spot Size
6.9.3 Diffraction and Image Quality
6.9.4 Modulation Transfer Function
6.9.5 Other Imaging Tests
Further Reading
7 Radiometry and Photometry. 7.1 Introduction
7.2 Radiometry. 7.2.1 Radiometric Units
7.2.2 Significance of Radiometric Units
7.2.3 Ideal or Lambertian Scattering
7.2.4 Spectral Radiometric Units
7.2.5 Blackbody Radiation
7.2.6 Étendue
Worked Example 7.1 Flux Calculation
7.3 Scattering of Light from Rough Surfaces
7.4 Scattering of Light from Smooth Surfaces
7.5 Radiometry and Object Field Illumination. 7.5.1 Köhler Illumination
7.5.2 Use of Diffusers
7.5.3 The Integrating Sphere. 7.5.3.1 Uniform Illumination
7.5.3.2 Integrating Sphere Measurements
7.5.4 Natural Vignetting
7.6 Radiometric Measurements. 7.6.1 Introduction
7.6.2 Radiometric Calibration. 7.6.2.1 Substitution Radiometry
7.6.2.2 Reference Sources
7.6.2.3 Other Calibration Standards
7.7 Photometry. 7.7.1 Introduction
7.7.2 Photometric Units
7.7.3 Illumination Levels
7.7.4 Colour. 7.7.4.1 Tristimulus Values
7.7.4.2 RGB Colour
7.7.5 Astronomical Photometry
Further Reading
8 Polarisation and Birefringence. 8.1 Introduction
8.2 Polarisation. 8.2.1 Plane Polarised Waves
8.2.2 Circularly and Elliptically Polarised Light
8.2.3 Jones Vector Representation of Polarisation
8.2.4 Stokes Vector Representation of Polarisation
8.2.5 Polarisation and Reflection
8.2.6 Directional Flux – Poynting Vector
8.3 Birefringence. 8.3.1 Introduction
8.3.2 The Index Ellipsoid
8.3.3 Propagation of Light in a Uniaxial Crystal – Double Refraction
Worked Example 8.4 Double Refraction in Calcite
8.3.4 ‘Walk-off’ in Birefringent Crystals
Worked Example 8.5 – Walk off Angle
8.3.5 Uniaxial Materials
8.3.6 Biaxial Crystals
8.4 Polarisation Devices. 8.4.1 Waveplates
8.4.2 Polarising Crystals
8.4.3 Polarising Beamsplitter
8.4.4 Wire Grid Polariser
8.4.5 Dichroitic Materials
8.4.6 The Faraday Effect and Polarisation Rotation
8.5 Analysis of Polarisation Components. 8.5.1 Jones Matrices
Worked Example 8.6 Twisted Nematic Liquid Crystal
8.5.2 Müller Matrices
8.6 Stress-induced Birefringence
Further Reading
9 Optical Materials. 9.1 Introduction
9.2 Refractive Properties of Optical Materials. 9.2.1 Transmissive Materials. 9.2.1.1 Modelling Dispersion
Worked Example 9.1 Abbe Number of SCHOTT BK7
9.2.1.2 Temperature Dependence of Refractive Index
9.2.1.3 Temperature Coefficient of Refraction for Air
9.2.2 Behaviour of Reflective Materials
Worked Example 9.2 Reflectivity of Aluminium
9.2.3 Semiconductor Materials
9.3 Transmission Characteristics of Materials. 9.3.1 General
9.3.2 Glasses
9.3.3 Crystalline Materials
9.3.4 Chalcogenide Glasses
9.3.5 Semiconductor Materials
9.3.6 Polymer Materials
9.3.7 Overall Transmission Windows for Common Optical Materials
9.4 Thermomechanical Properties. 9.4.1 Thermal Expansion
9.4.2 Dimensional Stability Under Thermal Loading
9.4.3 Annealing
9.4.4 Material Strength and Fracture Mechanics
Worked Example 9.3 Achromatic Doublet
9.5 Material Quality. 9.5.1 General
9.5.2 Refractive Index Homogeneity
9.5.3 Striae
9.5.4 Bubbles and Inclusions
9.5.5 Stress Induced Birefringence
9.6 Exposure to Environmental Attack
9.6.1 Climatic Resistance
9.6.2 Stain Resistance
9.6.3 Resistance to Acid and Alkali Attack
9.7 Material Processing
Further Reading
10 Coatings and Filters. 10.1 Introduction
10.2 Properties of Thin Films. 10.2.1 Analysis of Thin Film Reflection
10.2.2 Single Layer Antireflection Coatings
Worked Example 10.1 Single Layer Antireflection Coating
10.2.3 Multilayer Coatings
10.2.4 Thin Metal Films
10.2.5 Protected and Enhanced Metal Films
10.3 Filters. 10.3.1 General
10.3.2 Antireflection Coatings
10.3.3 Edge Filters
10.3.4 Bandpass Filters
10.3.5 Neutral Density Filters
10.3.6 Polarisation Filters
Worked Example 10.2 Polarising Beamsplitter
10.3.7 Beamsplitters
10.3.8 Dichroic Filters
10.3.9 Etalon Filters
Worked Example 10.3 Etalon Filter
10.4 Design of Thin Film Filters
10.5 Thin Film Materials
10.6 Thin Film Deposition Processes. 10.6.1 General
10.6.2 Evaporation
10.6.3 Sputtering
10.6.4 Thickness Monitoring
Further Reading
11 Prisms and Dispersion Devices. 11.1 Introduction
11.2 Prisms. 11.2.1 Dispersive Prisms
11.2.2 Reflective Prisms
11.3 Analysis of Diffraction Gratings. 11.3.1 Introduction
11.3.2 Principle of Operation
Worked Example 11.2 Diffraction Grating
11.3.3 Dispersion and Resolving Power
Worked Example 11.3 Diffraction Grating Resolving Power
11.3.4 Efficiency of a Transmission Grating
11.3.5 Phase Gratings
11.3.6 Impact of Varying Angle of Incidence
Worked Example 11.4 Transmission Grating with Non-Zero Incidence Angle
11.3.7 Reflection Gratings
Worked Example 11.5 Blazed Grating
11.3.8 Impact of Polarisation
11.3.9 Other Grating Types. 11.3.9.1 Holographic Gratings
11.3.9.2 Echelle Grating
11.3.9.3 Concave Gratings – The Rowland Grating
11.3.9.4 Grisms
Worked Example 11.6 Design of Visible Grating Prism
11.4 Diffractive Optics
11.5 Grating Fabrication. 11.5.1 Ruled Gratings
11.5.2 Holographic Gratings
Further Reading
12 Lasers and Laser Applications. 12.1 Introduction
12.2 Stimulated Emission Schemes. 12.2.1 General
12.2.2 Stimulated Emission in Ruby
12.2.3 Stimulated Emission in Neon
12.2.4 Stimulated Emission in Semiconductors
12.3 Laser Cavities. 12.3.1 Background
12.3.2 Longitudinal Modes
Worked Example 12.1 Longitudinal Modes in Helium Neon Laser
12.3.3 Longitudinal Mode Phase Relationship – Mode Locking
12.3.4 Q Switching
12.3.5 Distributed Feedback
12.3.6 Ring Lasers
12.3.7 Transverse Modes
12.3.8 Gaussian Beam Propagation in a Laser Cavity
Worked Example 12.2 Helium Neon Laser Beam
12.4 Taxonomy of Lasers. 12.4.1 General
12.4.2 Categorisation. 12.4.2.1 Gas Lasers
12.4.2.2 Solid State Lasers
12.4.2.3 Fibre Lasers
12.4.2.4 Semiconductor Lasers
12.4.2.5 Chemical Lasers
12.4.2.6 Dye Lasers
12.4.2.7 Optical Parametric Oscillators and Non-linear Devices
12.4.2.8 Other Lasers
12.4.3 Temporal Characteristics
12.4.4 Power
12.5 List of Laser Types
12.5.1 Gas Lasers
12.5.2 Solid State Lasers
12.5.3 Semiconductor Lasers
12.5.4 Chemical Lasers
12.5.5 Dye Lasers
12.5.6 Other Lasers
12.6 Laser Applications. 12.6.1 General
12.6.2 Materials Processing
12.6.3 Lithography
12.6.4 Medical Applications
12.6.5 Surveying and Dimensional Metrology
12.6.6 Alignment
12.6.7 Interferometry and Holography
12.6.8 Spectroscopy
12.6.9 Data Recording
12.6.10 Telecommunications
Further Reading
13 Optical Fibres and Waveguides. 13.1 Introduction
13.2 Geometrical Description of Fibre Propagation. 13.2.1 Step Index Fibre
13.2.2 Graded Index Optics. 13.2.2.1 Graded Index Fibres
13.2.2.2 Gradient Index Optics
Worked Example 13.1 GRIN Lens
13.2.3 Fibre Bend Radius
13.3 Waveguides and Modes. 13.3.1 Simple Description – Slab Modes
Worked Example 13.2 Cut off Wavelength of a Slab Waveguide
13.3.2 Propagation Velocity and Dispersion
13.3.3 Strong and Weakly Guiding Structures
13.4 Single Mode Optical Fibres. 13.4.1 Basic Analysis
Worked 13.3 Single Mode Fibre
13.4.2 Generic Analysis of Single Mode Fibres
Worked Example 13.4 Single Mode Fibre Mode Size
13.4.3 Impact of Fibre Bending
13.5 Optical Fibre Materials. 13.5.1 General
13.5.2 Attenuation
13.5.3 Fibre Dispersion
13.6 Coupling of Light into Fibres. 13.6.1 General
13.6.2 Coupling into Single Mode Fibres. 13.6.2.1 Overlap Integral
13.6.2.2 Coupling of Gaussian Beams into Single Mode Fibres
Worked Example 13.5 Single Mode Fibre Coupling
13.7 Fibre Splicing and Connection
13.8 Fibre Splitters, Combiners, and Couplers
13.9 Polarisation and Polarisation Maintaining Fibres. 13.9.1 Polarisation Mode Dispersion
13.9.2 Polarisation Maintaining Fibre
13.10 Focal Ratio Degradation
13.11 Periodic Structures in Fibres. 13.11.1 Photonic Crystal Fibres and Holey Fibres
13.11.2 Fibre Bragg Gratings
13.12 Fibre Manufacture
13.13 Fibre Applications
Further Reading
14 Detectors. 14.1 Introduction
14.2 Detector Types. 14.2.1 Photomultiplier Tubes. 14.2.1.1 General Operating Principle
14.2.1.2 Dynode Multiplication
14.2.1.3 Spectral Sensitivity
14.2.1.4 Dark Current
14.2.1.5 Linearity
14.2.1.6 Photon Counting
14.2.2 Photodiodes. 14.2.2.1 General Operating Principle
14.2.2.2 Sensitivity
14.2.2.3 Dark Current
14.2.2.4 Linearity
14.2.2.5 Breakdown
14.2.3 Avalanche Photodiode
14.2.4 Array Detectors. 14.2.4.1 Introduction
14.2.4.2 Charged Coupled Devices
14.2.4.3 CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) Technology
14.2.4.4 Sensitivity
14.2.4.5 Dark Current
14.2.4.6 Linearity
14.2.5 Photoconductive Detectors
14.2.6 Bolometers
14.3 Noise in Detectors. 14.3.1 Introduction
14.3.2 Shot Noise
Worked Example 14.1 Laser Beam Shot Noise
14.3.3 Gain Noise
14.3.4 Background Noise
14.3.5 Dark Current
14.3.6 Johnson Noise. 14.3.6.1 General
Worked Example 14.2 Photomultiplier Sensitivity
14.3.6.2 Johnson Noise in Array Detectors
Worked Example 14.3 Read Noise in a Representative Pixel
14.3.7 Pink or ‘Flicker’ Noise
14.3.8 Combining Multiple Noise Sources
14.3.9 Detector Sensitivity
Worked Example 14.4 NEP of a Photodiode
14.4 Radiometry and Detectors
Worked Example 14.5 SNR in a Thermal Camera
14.5 Array Detectors in Instrumentation. 14.5.1 Flat Fielding of Array Detectors
14.5.2 Image Centroiding
14.5.3 Array Detectors and MTF
Further Reading
15 Optical Instrumentation – Imaging Devices. 15.1 Introduction
15.2 The Design of Eyepieces. 15.2.1 Underlying Principles
15.2.2 Simple Eyepiece Designs – Huygens and Ramsden Eyepieces
15.2.3 Kellner Eyepiece
15.2.4 Plössl Eyepiece
15.2.5 More Complex Designs
15.3 Microscope Objectives. 15.3.1 Background to Objective Design
15.3.2 Design of Microscope Objectives
15.4 Telescopes. 15.4.1 Introduction
15.4.2 Refracting Telescopes
15.4.3 Reflecting Telescopes. 15.4.3.1 Introduction
15.4.3.2 Simple Reflecting Telescopes
15.4.3.3 Ritchey-Chrétien Telescope
Worked Example 15.1 Hubble Space Telescope
15.4.3.4 Three Mirror Anastigmat
Worked Example 15.2 TMA Design
15.4.3.5 Quad Mirror Anastigmat
15.4.4 Catadioptric Systems
15.5 Camera Systems. 15.5.1 Introduction
15.5.2 Simple Camera Lenses
15.5.3 Advanced Designs. 15.5.3.1 Cooke Triplet
Worked Example 15.3 Cooke Triplet
15.5.3.2 Variations on the Cooke Triplet
15.5.3.3 Double Gauss Lens
15.5.3.4 Zoom Lenses
Further Reading
16 Interferometers and Related Instruments. 16.1 Introduction
16.2 Background. 16.2.1 Fringes and Fringe Visibility
16.2.2 Data Processing and Wavefront Mapping
16.3 Classical Interferometers. 16.3.1 The Fizeau Interferometer
16.3.2 The Twyman Green Interferometer
16.3.3 Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
16.3.4 Lateral Shear Interferometer
16.3.5 White Light Interferometer
16.3.6 Interference Microscopy
16.3.7 Vibration Free Interferometry
16.4 Calibration. 16.4.1 Introduction
16.4.2 Calibration and Characterisation of Reference Spheres
16.4.3 Characterisation and Calibration of Reference Flats
16.5 Interferometry and Null Tests. 16.5.1 Introduction
16.5.2 Testing of Conics
16.5.3 Null Lens Tests
16.5.4 Computer Generated Holograms
16.6 Interferometry and Phase Shifting
16.7 Miscellaneous Characterisation Techniques. 16.7.1 Introduction
16.7.2 Shack-Hartmann Sensor
16.7.3 Knife Edge Tests
16.7.4 Fringe Projection Techniques
16.7.5 Scanning Pentaprism Test
16.7.6 Confocal Gauge
Further Reading
17 Spectrometers and Related Instruments. 17.1 Introduction
17.2 Basic Spectrometer Designs. 17.2.1 Introduction
17.2.2 Grating Spectrometers and Order Sorting
17.2.3 Czerny Turner Monochromator. 17.2.3.1 Basic Design
17.2.3.2 Resolution
17.2.3.3 Aberrations
17.2.3.4 Flux and Throughput
17.2.3.5 Instrument Scaling
Worked Example 17.2 Extremely Large Telescope Spectrometer Scaling
17.2.4 Fastie-Ebert Spectrometer
17.2.5 Offner Spectrometer
17.2.6 Imaging Spectrometers. 17.2.6.1 Introduction
17.2.6.2 Spectrometer Architecture
17.2.6.3 Spectrometer Design
Worked Example 17.3 Spectroscope Design
17.2.6.4 Flux and Throughput
17.2.6.5 Straylight and Ghosts
17.2.6.6 2D Object Conditioning
17.2.7 Echelle Spectrometers
17.2.8 Double and Triple Spectrometers
17.3 Time Domain Spectrometry. 17.3.1 Fourier Transform Spectrometry
17.3.2 Wavemeters
Further Reading
18 Optical Design. 18.1 Introduction. 18.1.1 Background
18.1.2 Tolerancing
18.1.3 Design Process
18.1.4 Optical Modelling – Outline. 18.1.4.1 Sequential Modelling
18.1.4.2 Non-Sequential Modelling
18.2 Design Philosophy. 18.2.1 Introduction
18.2.2 Definition of Requirements
18.2.3 Requirement Partitioning and Budgeting
Worked Example 18.1 Partitioning of Requirements
18.2.4 Design Process
18.2.5 Summary of Design Tools
18.3 Optical Design Tools. 18.3.1 Introduction
18.3.2 Establishing the Model. 18.3.2.1 Lens Data Editor
18.3.2.2 System Parameters
18.3.2.3 Co-ordinates
18.3.2.4 Merit Function Editor
18.3.3 Analysis
18.3.4 Optimisation
18.3.5 Tolerancing. 18.3.5.1 Background
18.3.5.2 Tolerance Editor
18.3.5.3 Sensitivity Analysis
18.3.5.4 Monte-Carlo Simulation
18.3.5.5 Refining the Tolerancing Model
18.3.5.6 Default Tolerances
18.3.5.7 Registration and Mechanical Tolerances
18.3.5.8 Sophisticated Modelling of Form Error
18.4 Non-Sequential Modelling. 18.4.1 Introduction
18.4.2 Applications
18.4.3 Establishing the Model. 18.4.3.1 Background and Model Description
18.4.3.2 Lens Data Editor
18.4.3.3 Wavelengths
18.4.3.4 Analysis
18.4.4 Baffling
18.5 Afterword
Further Reading
19 Mechanical and Thermo-Mechanical Modelling. 19.1 Introduction. 19.1.1 Background
19.1.2 Tolerancing
19.1.3 Athermal Design
19.1.4 Mechanical Models
19.2 Basic Elastic Theory. 19.2.1 Introduction
19.2.2 Elastic Theory
19.3 Basic Analysis of Mechanical Distortion. 19.3.1 Introduction
19.3.2 Optical Bench Distortion. 19.3.2.1 Definition of the Problem
19.3.2.2 Application of External Forces
19.3.2.3 Establishing Boundary Conditions
19.3.2.4 Modelling of Deflection under Self-Loading
Worked Example 19.1 Deflection of Optical Table
19.3.2.5 Modelling of Deflection Under ‘Point’ Load
19.3.2.6 Impact of Optical Bench Distortion
19.3.3 Simple Distortion of Optical Components. 19.3.3.1 Introduction
19.3.3.2 Self-Weight Deflection
19.3.3.3 Vacuum or Pressure Flexure
19.3.4 Effects of Component Mounting. 19.3.4.1 General
19.3.4.2 Degrees of Freedom in Mounting
19.3.4.3 Modelling of Mounting Deformation in Mirrors
19.3.4.4 Modelling of Mounting Stresses in Lens Components
19.4 Basic Analysis of Thermo-Mechanical Distortion. 19.4.1 Introduction
19.4.2 Thermal Distortion of Optical Benches
19.4.3 Impact of Focal Shift and Athermal Design
19.4.4 Differential Expansion of a Component Stack
19.4.5 Impact of Mounting and Bonding. 19.4.5.1 Bonding
19.4.5.2 Mounting
19.5 Finite Element Analysis. 19.5.1 Introduction
19.5.2 Underlying Mechanics. 19.5.2.1 Definition of Static Equilibrium
19.5.2.2 Boundary Conditions
19.5.3 FEA Meshing
19.5.4 Some FEA Models
Further Reading
20 Optical Component Manufacture. 20.1 Introduction. 20.1.1 Context
20.1.2 Manufacturing Processes
20.2 Conventional Figuring of Optical Surfaces. 20.2.1 Introduction
20.2.2 Grinding Process
20.2.3 Fine Grinding
20.2.4 Polishing
20.2.5 Metrology
20.3 Specialist Shaping and Polishing Techniques. 20.3.1 Introduction
20.3.2 Computer-Controlled Sub-Aperture Polishing
20.3.3 Magneto-rheological Polishing
20.3.4 Ion Beam Figuring
20.4 Diamond Machining. 20.4.1 Introduction
20.4.2 Basic Construction of a Diamond Machine Tool
20.4.3 Machining Configurations. 20.4.3.1 Single Point Diamond Turning
20.4.3.2 Raster Flycutting
20.4.4 Fixturing and Stability
20.4.5 Moulding and Replication
20.5 Edging and Bonding. 20.5.1 Introduction
20.5.2 Edging of Lenses
20.5.3 Bonding
20.6 Form Error and Surface Roughness
20.7 Standards and Drawings. 20.7.1 Introduction
20.7.2 ISO 10110. 20.7.2.1 Background
20.7.2.2 Material Properties
20.7.2.3 Surface Properties
20.7.2.4 General Information
20.7.3 Example Drawing
Further Reading
21 System Integration and Alignment. 21.1 Introduction. 21.1.1 Background
21.1.2 Mechanical Constraint
21.1.3 Mounting Geometries
21.2 Component Mounting. 21.2.1 Lens Barrel Mounting
21.2.2 Optical Bench Mounting. 21.2.2.1 General
21.2.2.2 Kinematic Mounts
21.2.2.3 Gimbal Mounts
21.2.2.4 Flexure Mounts
21.2.2.5 Hexapod Mounting
21.2.2.6 Linear Stages
21.2.2.7 Micropositioning and Piezo-Stages
21.2.3 Mounting of Large Components and Isostatic Mounting
21.3 Optical Bonding. 21.3.1 Introduction
21.3.2 Material Properties
21.3.3 Adhesive Curing
21.3.4 Applications
21.3.5 Summary of Adhesive Types and Applications
21.4 Alignment. 21.4.1 Introduction
21.4.2 Alignment and Boresight Error
21.4.3 Alignment and Off-Axis Aberrations
21.4.4 Autocollimation and Alignment
21.4.5 Alignment and Spot Centroiding
21.4.6 Alignment and Off-Axis Aberrations
21.5 Cleanroom Assembly. 21.5.1 Introduction
21.5.2 Cleanrooms and Cleanroom Standards
21.5.3 Particle Deposition and Surface Cleanliness
Further Reading
22 Optical Test and Verification. 22.1 Introduction. 22.1.1 General
22.1.2 Verification
22.1.3 Systems, Subsystems, and Components
22.1.4 Environmental Testing
22.1.5 Optical Performance Tests
22.2 Facilities
22.3 Environmental Testing. 22.3.1 Introduction
22.3.2 Dynamical Tests. 22.3.2.1 Vibration
22.3.2.2 Mechanical Shock
22.3.3 Thermal Environment. 22.3.3.1 Temperature and Humidity Cycling
22.3.3.2 Thermal Shock
22.4 Geometrical Testing. 22.4.1 Introduction
22.4.2 Focal Length and Cardinal Point Determination
22.4.3 Measurement of Distortion
22.4.4 Measurement of Angles and Displacements. 22.4.4.1 General
22.4.4.2 Calibration
22.4.4.3 Co-ordinate Measurement Machines
22.5 Image Quality Testing. 22.5.1 Introduction
22.5.2 Direct Measurement of Image Quality
22.5.3 Interferometry
22.6 Radiometric Tests. 22.6.1 Introduction
22.6.2 Detector Characterisation. 22.6.2.1 General
22.6.2.2 Pixelated Detector Flat Fielding
22.6.3 Measurement of Spectral Irradiance and Radiance
22.6.4 Characterisation of Spectrally Dependent Flux
22.6.5 Straylight and Low Light Levels
22.6.6 Polarisation Measurements
22.7 Material and Component Testing. 22.7.1 Introduction
22.7.2 Material Properties. 22.7.2.1 Measurement of Refractive Index
22.7.2.2 Bubbles and Inclusions
22.7.3 Surface Properties. 22.7.3.1 Measurement of Surface Roughness
22.7.3.2 Measurement of Cosmetic Surface Quality
Further Reading
Index
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