Оглавление
A. Kayode Coker. Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Petroleum Refining Design and Applications Handbook
In Loving Memory of
Preface
Acknowledgments
13 Rules of Thumb—Summary. 13.0 Introduction
COMPRESSORS, FANS, BLOWERS, AND VACUUM PUMPS
CONVEYORS FOR PARTICULATE SOLIDS
COOLING TOWERS
CRYSTALLIZATION FROM SOLUTION
DISINTEGRATION
TOWERS
TRAY TOWERS
PACKED TOWERS
DRIVERS AND POWER RECOVERY EQUIPMENT
DRYING OF SOLIDS
EVAPORATORS
EXTRACTION, LIQUID–LIQUID
FILTRATION
FLUIDIZATION OF PARTICLES WITH GASES
HEAT EXCHANGERS
INSULATION
MIXING AND AGITATION
PARTICLE SIZE ENLARGEMENT
PIPING
PUMPS
REACTORS
REFRIGERATION
SIZE SEPARATION OF PARTICLES
UTILITIES, COMMON SPECIFICATIONS
VESSELS (DRUMS)
VESSEL (PRESSURE)
VESSELS (STORAGE TANKS)
14 Process Planning, Scheduling, and Flowsheet Design. 14.1 Introduction
14.2 Organizational Structure
14.2.1 Process Design Scope
14.3 Role of the Process Design Engineer
14.4 Computer-Aided Flowsheeting
14.5 Flowsheets—Types
14.5.1 Block Diagram
14.5.2 Process Flowsheet or Flow Diagram
14.5.3 Piping Flowsheet or Mechanical Flow Diagram, or Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)
14.5.4 Combined Process and Piping Flowsheet or Diagram
14.5.5 Utility Flowsheets or Diagrams (ULDs)
14.5.6 Special Flowsheets or Diagrams
14.5.7 Special or Supplemental Aids. Plot Plans
14.6 Flowsheet Presentation
14.7 General Arrangements Guide
14.8 Computer-Aided Flowsheet Design/Drafting
14.9 Flowsheet Symbols
14.10 Line Symbols and Designations
14.11 Materials of Construction for Lines
14.12 Test Pressure for Lines
14.13 Working Schedules
14.14 Information Checklists
14.15 Basic Engineering and Front End Engineering Design (FEED)
References
15 Fluid Flow. 15.1 Introduction
15.2 Flow of Fluids in Pipes
15.3 Scope
15.4 Basis
15.5 Incompressible Flow
15.6 Compressible Flow: Vapors and Gases [4]
15.7 Important Pressure Level References
15.8 Factors of “Safety” for Design Basis
15.9 Pipe, Fittings, and Valves
15.10 Pipe
15.11 Total Line Pressure Drop
Background Information
15.11.1 Relationship Between the Pipe Diameter and Pressure Drop (ΔP)
15.11.2 Economic Balance in Piping and Optimum Pipe Diameter
15.12 Reynolds Number, Re (Sometimes Used NRe)
15.13 Pipe Relative Roughness
15.14 Darcy Friction Factor, f
15.15 Friction Head Loss (Resistance) in Pipe, Fittings, and Connections
15.15.1 Pressure Drop in Straight Pipe: Incompressible Fluid
15.16 Oil System Piping
15.16.1 Density and Specific Gravity
15.16.2 Specific Gravity of Blended Products
15.16.3 Viscosity
15.16.4 Viscosity of Blended Products
15.16.5 Blending Index, H
15.16.6 Vapor Pressure
15.16.7 Velocity
For flow rate in bbl/day
For flow rate in gal/min
15.16.8 Frictional Pressure Drop, ft of Liquid Head
15.16.9 Hazen–Williams Equation
15.16.10 Transmission Factor
15.16.11 Miller Equation
15.16.12 Shell–MIT Equation
15.17 Pressure Drop in Fittings, Valves, and Connections. 15.17.1 Incompressible Fluid
15.17.2 Velocity and Velocity Head
15.17.3 Equivalent Lengths of Fittings
15.17.4 L/D Values in Laminar Region
15.17.5 Validity of K Values
15.17.6 Laminar Flow
15.17.7 Expressing All Pipe Sizes in Terms of One Diameter
15.17.8 Loss Coefficient
15.17.9 Sudden Enlargement or Contraction
15.17.10 For Sudden Contractions
15.17.11 Piping Systems
15.18 Resistance of Valves
15.19 Flow Coefficients for Valves, Cv
15.20 Flow Meters
15.20.1 Process Design of Orifice Meter
Disadvantage
15.20.2 Nozzles and Orifices
A. Unknown Pressure Drop
B. Unknown Diameter
C. Unknown Flow Rate
Conclusion
15.21 Estimation of Pressure Loss Across Control Valves. Liquids, Vapors, and Gases
15.22 The Direct Design of a Control Valve
15.23 Water Hammer
15.24 Friction Pressure Drop for Compressible Fluid Flow. Vapors and Gases
15.24.1 Compressible Fluid Flow in Pipes
15.24.2 Maximum Flow and Pressure Drop
15.24.3 Sonic Conditions Limiting Flow of Gases and Vapors
15.24.4 The Mach Number, Ma
Flow Rate of Compressible Isothermal Flow
Pipeline Pressure Drop (ΔP)
Case Study
15.24.5 Critical Pressure Ratio
15.24.6 Adiabatic Flow
15.24.7 The Expansion Factor, Y
15.24.8 Misleading Rules of Thumb for Compressible Fluid Flow
15.24.9 Other Simplified Compressible Flow Methods
15.24.10 Friction Drop for Flow of Vapors, Gases and Steam
15.25 Darcy Rational Relation for Compressible Vapors and Gases
15.26 Velocity of Compressible Fluids in Pipe
15.27 Procedure
15.28 Friction Drop for Compressible Natural Gas in Long Pipe Lines
15.29 Panhandle-A Gas Flow Formula
15.30 Modified Panhandle Flow Formula
15.31 American Gas Association (AGA) Dry Gas Method
15.32 Complex Pipe Systems Handling Natural (or Similar) Gas
15.33 Two-Phase Liquid and Gas Flow in Process Piping
15.33.1 Flow Patterns
15.33.2 Flow Regimes
15.33.3 Pressure Drop
Bubble or froth flow
Plug flow
Stratified flow
Wave flow
Slug Flow
Annular flow
Dispersed or Spray flow
15.33.4 Erosion–Corrosion
Avoiding Slug Flow
Maintaining the Proper Flow Regime
15.33.5 Total System Pressure Drop
15.33.6 Pipe Sizing Rules
15.33.7 A Solution for All Two-Phase Problems
15.33.8 Gas–Liquid Two-Phase Vertical Down Flow
The Equations
The Algorithms
15.33.9 Pressure Drop in Vacuum Systems
15.33.10 Low Absolute Pressure Systems for Air
Method [62, 63]
15.33.11 Vacuum for Other Gases and Vapors
15.33.12 Pressure Drop for Flashing Liquids
15.33.13 Sizing Condensate Return Lines
Design Procedure Using Sarco Chart [67, 68]
The Equations
15.34 UniSim Design PIPESYS
PIPESYS Features
Case Study: Pressure Drop Through Pipeline
15.35 Pipe Line Safety
15.36 Mitigating Pipeline Hazards
15.37 Examples of Safety Design Concerns
Piping Systems
Valves
Piping and Valves Used in ASME Section 1 Service
15.38 Safety Incidents Related With Pipeworks and Materials of Construction
15.39 Lessons Learned From Piping Designs
15.40 Design of Safer Piping
15.40.1 Best Practices for Process Piping
15.40.2 Designing Liquid Piping
15.40.3 Best Practices for Liquid Piping
Nomenclature
Greek Symbols
Subscripts
References
16 Pumps. 16.1 Pumping of Liquids
16.2 Pump Design Standardization
16.3 Basic Parts of a Centrifugal Pump
Impellers
Casing
Shaft
Bearings
Packing and Seals on Rotating Shaft
16.4 Centrifugal Pump Selection
Single-Stage (Single Impeller) Pumps
Pumps in Series
Pumps in Parallel
16.5 Hydraulic Characteristics for Centrifugal Pumps
Example 16.1: Liquid Heads
Static Head
Pressure Head
Friction Losses Due to Flow
Example 16.2: Illustrating Static, Pressure, and Friction Effects
16.6 Suction Head or Suction Lift, hs
16.7 Discharge Head, hd
16.8 Velocity Head
16.9 Friction
16.10 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) and Pump Suction
16.11 General Suction System
Example 16.3: Suction Lift
Solution
Example 16.4: NPSHA in Open Vessel System at Sea Level
Example 16.5: NPSHA in Open Vessel Not at Sea Level
Example 16.6: NPSHA in Vacuum System
Example 16.7: NPSHA in Pressure System
Example 16.8: Closed System Steam Surface Condenser NPSH Requirements
Example 16.9: Process Vacuum System
16.12 Reductions in NPSHR
Example 16.10: Corrections to NPSHR for Hot Liquid Hydrocarbons and Water
Example 16.11: Alternate to Example 16.10
16.13 Charting NPSHR Values of Pumps
16.14 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
16.15 NPSH Requirement for Liquids Saturation With Dissolved Gases
Example 16.12
Solution
16.16 Specific Speed
Example 16.13: “Type Specific Speed”
16.17 Rotative Speed
16.18 Pumping Systems and Performance
Example 16.14: System Head Using Two Different Pipe Sizes in Same Line
Example 16.15: System Head for Branch Piping With Different Static Lifts
16.19 Power Requirements for Pumping Through Process Lines
Hydraulic Power
Relations Between Head, Horsepower, Capacity, Speed. Brake Horsepower (BHP) Input at Pump
Example 16.16
Solution
Driver Horsepower
16.20 Affinity Laws
Example 16.17: Pump Parameters
Solution
Example 16.18: Specific Speed, Flow Rate, and Power Required by a Pump
Solution
Example 16.19: Ethylene Product Pump
Example 16.20: Pump Sizing of Gas–Oil
Solution
Example 16.21: Debutanizer Unit of Example 15.2
Solution
16.21 Centrifugal Pump Efficiency
Example 16.22: Reducing Impeller Diameter at Fixed RPM
16.22 Effects of Viscosity
Example 16.23: Pump Performance Correction for Viscous Liquid
Example 16.24: Corrected Performance Curves for Viscosity Effect
Example 16.25
Solution
Example 16.26
Solution
Example 16.27
Solution
16.23 Temperature Rise and Minimum Flow
Example 16.28: Maximum Temperature Rise Using Boiler Feed Water
16.24 Centrifugal Pump Specifications
Example 16.29: Pump Specifications
Steps in Pump Sizing
16.25 Number of Pumping Units
Fluid Conditions
System Conditions
Type of Pump
Type of Driver
Sump Design for Vertical Lift
16.26 Rotary Pumps
Performance Characteristics of Rotary Pumps
Selection
16.27 Reciprocating Pumps
Significant Features in Reciprocating Pump Arrangements
Application
Performance
Discharge Flow Patterns
Horsepower
16.28 Pump Selection
16.29 Selection Rules-of-Thumb
16.30 Case Studies. Case Study 1. Pump Simulation on a PFD
Mathematical Model
Variables Descriptions
Simulation Algorithm
Problem
Discussion
Case Study 2
16.31 Pump Cavitations
Case Study 3. Low NPSHA at Main Column Bottoms (MCB)
16.32 Pump Fundamentals
NPSHA
16.33 Operating Philosophy
Main Column Bottoms (MCB) Pump Specification
Frequent Loss of Suction of Vacuum Residue Pumps at Vacuum Column Bottom
Failure of Pumps in a Hydrocracker
Oil Refinery Fire and Explosion at Ciniza Oil Refinery, New Mexico, USA
Mechanical Integrity
Corrosion and Scale Formation
Valve Design
Management of Change
16.34 Piping
16.35 Troubleshooting Checklist for Centrifugal Pumps
Pump Installation Check List
Factors in Pump Selection
Pump Reliability
New Technology With Screw Pumps
Nomenclature
Subscripts
Greek Symbols
References
17. Compression Equipment. 17.1 Introduction
17.2 General Application Guide
17.3 Specification Guides
17.4 General Considerations for Any Type of Compressor Flow Conditions
17.4.1 Fluid Properties
17.4.2 Compressibility
17.4.3 Corrosive Nature
17.4.4 Moisture
17.4.5 Special Conditions
17.5 Reciprocating Compression. Mechanical Considerations
Cylinders
Frames
17.6 Suction and Discharge Valves
Piston Rods
Piston
Piston Rings
Cylinders
Piston Rod Packing
17.7 Specification Sheet
17.8 Performance Considerations. Cooling Water to Cylinder Jackets
Heat Rejected to Water
Drivers
Ideal Pressure–Volume Relationship
Actual Compressor Diagram
Deviations From Ideal Gas Laws: Compressibility
Charles’ Law at Constant Pressure [11]
Amonton’s Law at Constant Volume [11]
Combined Boyle’s and Charles’ Laws
Mollier Chart Method
Entropy Balance Method
17.9 Compressor Performance Characteristics. Piston Displacement
Compression Ratio
Example 17.1: Interstage Pressure and Ratios of Compression
Actual Capacity or Actual Delivery, Va
Clearance Volume
Percent Clearance
Cylinder Unloading and Clearance Pockets
Volumetric Efficiency
Compression Efficiency (Adiabatic)
Mechanical Efficiency
Piston Speed
Horsepower
Actual Brake Horsepower, Bhp (Alternate Correction for Compressibility)
Multistage
Bhp Actually Consumed by Cylinders
Temperature Rise—Adiabatic
Temperature Rise—Polytropic
Altitude Conversion
Example 17.2: Single-Stage Compression
Solution
Example 17.3: Two-Stage Compression
Solution
17.10 Hydrogen Use in the Refinery
17.10.1 IsoTherming Technology for Kerosene, Vacuum Gas Oil, and Diesel Hydroprocessing
Recycle of hydrogen accomplished by liquid recycle Elimination of recycle gas equipment in grassroots units Catalyst bed completely wetted
Flexibility in reactor shape
A Case Study Using UniSim Design R460.1 Software for a Two-Stage Compression. Case Study 1
Solution
1. Starting UniSim Design software
2. Creating a New Simulation
Saving the Simulation
3. Adding Components to the Simulation
4. Selecting a Fluid Package
5. Select the Units for the Simulation
6. Enter Simulation Environment
Accidentally Closing the PFD
Object Palette
7. Adding Material Streams
8. Specifying Material Streams
9. Adding a Compressor
Solution of Compression Problems Using Mollier Diagrams
Horsepower
Cylinder Unloading
Example 17.5: Compressor Unloading
Solution
Example 17.6: Effect of Compressibility at High Pressure
Air Compressor Selection
Energy flow
Constant-T system
Polytropic System
Constant-S System
Example 17.7: Use of Figure 17.35 Air Chart (©W. T. Rice)
Centrifugal Compressors
Mechanical Considerations
Case
Diaphragms and Diffusers
Labyrinth Seals
Impeller Wheels
Guide or Prerotation Vanes
Shaft
Bearings
Accessories
Shaft End Seals
Materials of Construction
Specifications
Performance Characteristics
Inlet Volume
Compressor Piping
Surge Control
Compression Process
Adiabatic
Isothermal
Polytropic
Efficiency
Head
Adiabatic Head Developed per Single-Stage Wheel
Polytropic Head
Brake Horsepower
Centrifugal Compressor Approximate Rating by the “N” Method
Compressor Calculations by the Mollier Diagram Method
Example 17.8: Use of Mollier Diagram
Example 17.9: Comparison of Polytropic Head and Efficiency With Adiabatic Head and Efficiency
Speed of Rotation
Temperature Rise During Compression
Sonic or Acoustic Velocity
Example 17.10
Solution
Mach Number [69]
Specific Speed
Compressor Case and Impellers
Example 17.11: Approximate Compressor Selection
Approximate Selection for Preliminary Studies (Prior to Formal Inquiry to Manufacturers)
Case 1
Case 2:
Compressor Equations in SI Units
Polytropic Compressor
Adiabatic Compressor
Efficiency
Mass Flow Rate, w
Mechanical Losses
Estimating Compressor Horsepower
Multistage Compressors
Example 17.12
Solution
Example 17.13
Solution
Multicomponent Gas Streams
Case Studies. Case Study 2
Case Study 3: Two-Phase Compressor Simulation—Using UniSim Simulator
Example 17.14
Solution
Case Study 4
Solution
Treatment of Compressor Fluids
Centrifugal Compressor Performance in Process System
Compressor Head
Compressor Capacity: Driver Power
Unit Operations
Quick Approximation Method for Centrifugal Compressor Performance
For Horsepower
Number of Stages
Discharge Temperature
Compressor Speed
Operating Characteristics
Affinity Laws
Speed
Impeller Diameters (Similar)
Impeller Diameter (Changed)
Effect of Temperature
Affinity Law Performance
Control of Performance
Example 17.15: Changing Characteristics at Constant Speed
Solution
Example 17.16: Changing Characteristics at Variable Speed
Expansion Turbines
Axial Compressor
Operating Characteristics
Gas Velocities
Stages
Volume
Horsepower
Efficiency
Liquid Ring Compressors
Operating Characteristics
Applications
Rotary Two-Impeller (Lobe) Blowers and Vacuum Pumps
Construction Materials
Performance
Capacity
Efficiency
Rotary Axial Screw Blower and Vacuum Pumps
Performance
Advantages
Disadvantages
Efficiency
Speed
Capacity
Slip
Total Capacity
Temperature Rise
Rotary Sliding Vane Compressor
Performance
Speed
Applications
Oil Flooded Screw Compressors
Integrally Geared Compressors
Other Process-Related Compressors
Advances in Compressor Technology
Troubleshooting of Centrifugal and Reciprocating Compressors
Case Study
Nomenclature
Greek Symbols
Subscripts
References
Glossary of Petroleum and Technical Terminology
Appendix D. D-1 Process Flow Diagrams Using VISIO 2002 Software
D-2 Process Data Sheets
Appendix E
Index
About the Author
Also of Interest
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