A Text-book of Entomology

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A. S. Packard. A Text-book of Entomology

A Text-book of Entomology

Table of Contents

PREFACE

PART I.—MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY

POSITION OF INSECTS IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

Tabular View of the Eight Branches or Phyla of the Animal Kingdom

RELATIONS OF INSECTS TO OTHER ARTHROPODA

LITERATURE ON SCOLOPENDRELLA

INSECTA (HEXAPODA)

1. EXTERNAL ANATOMY

a. The regions of the body

b. The integument (exoskeleton)

c. Mechanical origin and structure of the segments (somites, arthromeres, metameres, zonites)

d. Mechanical origin of the limbs and of their jointed structure

LITERATURE ON THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY

General

THE HEAD AND ITS APPENDAGES

a. The head

LITERATURE ON THE EPIPHARYNX

b. Appendages of the head

LITERATURE OF THE MOUTH-PARTS OR BUCCAL APPENDAGES

a. General

b. Thysanoptera (Physapoda)

c. Hemiptera

d. Coleoptera

e. Lepidoptera

f. Siphonaptera

g. Diptera

h. Hymenoptera

i. Larval stages

j. Embryonic stages

THE THORAX AND ITS APPENDAGES

a. The thorax; its external anatomy

b. The legs: their structure and functions

c. Locomotion (walking, climbing, and swimming)

LITERATURE ON LEGS AND FEET

LITERATURE OF LOCOMOTION (WALKING, ETC.)

LITERATURE OF WALKING ON SMOOTH SURFACES

d. The wings and their structure

e. Development and mode of origin of the wings

f. The primitive origin of the wings

LITERATURE ON THE WINGS

g. Mechanism of flight

LITERATURE ON FLIGHT

THE ABDOMEN AND ITS APPENDAGES

LITERATURE ON THE ABDOMEN AND ITS APPENDAGES

a. General (including the cerci, stili, etc.)

b. The ovipositor

c. The external genital armature

THE ARMATURE OF INSECTS: SETÆ, HAIRS, SCALES, TUBERCLES, ETC

LITERATURE

a. Hairs, bristles, cleaning spines, calcaria, combs, etc

b. Glandular and poisonous setæ and spines

c. Androconia

d. Scales

THE COLORS OF INSECTS

LITERATURE

2. INTERNAL ANATOMY. THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

LITERATURE ON THE MUSCLES

a. General

b. Histology

c. Muscular power of insects

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

a. The nervous system as a whole

b. The brain

c. Histological elements of the brain

d. The visceral (sympathetic or stomatogastric) system

e. The supraspinal cord

f. Modifications of the brain in different orders of insects

g. Functions of the nerve-centres and nerves

LITERATURE ON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

a. General

b. The brain

c. Histology of the nervous System

THE SENSORY ORGANS

a. The eyes and insect vision

LITERATURE ON THE EYES AND VISION

a. General

b. The color-sense

b. The organs of smell

LITERATURE OF THE ORGANS OF SMELL

c. The organs of taste

LITERATURE ON THE ORGANS OF TASTE

d. The organs of hearing

e. The sounds of insects

LITERATURE ON THE ORGANS OF HEARING

a. The auditory organs

b. The sounds made by insects

THE DIGESTIVE CANAL AND ITS APPENDAGES

a. The digestive canal

LITERATURE ON THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION

b. Digestion in insects

LITERATURE ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF DIGESTION

THE GLANDULAR AND EXCRETORY APPENDAGES OF THE DIGESTIVE CANAL

a. The salivary glands

LITERATURE ON THE SALIVARY GLANDS

b. The silk or spinning glands, and the spinning apparatus

LITERATURE ON THE SPINNING GLANDS

c. The cæcal appendages

d. The excretory system (urinary or Malpighian tubes)

LITERATURE ON THE EXCRETORY (URINARY) ORGANS

e. Poison-glands

f. Adhesive or cement-glands

g. The wax-glands

h. “Honey-dew” or wax-glands of Aphids

i. Dermal glands in general

LITERATURE ON THE SECRETORY GLANDS

a. General

b. Poison-glands

c. Wax-glands

d. Wax-like glands of Aphides

DEFENSIVE OR REPUGNATORIAL SCENT-GLANDS

Distribution of repugnatorial or alluring scent-glands in insects[59]

A. Larval Insects

LEPIDOPTERA

Family Tineidæ

Family Noctuidæ

Family Notodontidæ

Family Nymphalidæ

Family Papilionidæ

Family Perophoridæ

Family Nolidæ

Family Tenthredinidæ

Family Tineidæ

Family Hemileucidæ

Family Megalopygidæ

Family Liparidæ

Family Lycænidæ

B. Nymph of Heterometabolous Insects

C. Pupa of Certain Bombyces

D. Adult Insects

LITERATURE ON DEFENSIVE OR REPUGNATORIAL GLANDS

THE ALLURING OR SCENT-GLANDS

LITERATURE ON ALLURING GLANDS

THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION

a. The heart

b. The blood

c. The circulation of the blood

I. Substances which cause the pulsations of the heart to accelerate

II. Substances retarding the heart’s action

III. Substances whose action is indifferent

LITERATURE ON THE HEART AND ON THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD

a. Anatomy of the organs

b. The blood, blood corpuscles, leucocytes, and blood tissue

c. The fat-bodies

THE BLOOD TISSUE

a. The fat-body

b. The pericardial fat-body or pericardial cells

c. The œnocytes

d. The phosphorescent organs

LITERATURE ON PHOSPHORESCENCE

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

a. The tracheæ

b. The spiracles or stigmata

c. Morphology and homologies of the tracheal system

d. The spiral threads or tænidia

e. Origin of the tracheæ and of the “spiral thread”

f. The mechanism of respiration and the respiratory movements of insects

g. The air-sacs

h. The closed or partly closed tracheal system

i. The rectal tracheal gills, and rectal respiration of larval Odonata and other insects

j. Tracheal gills of the larvæ of insects

k. Tracheal gills of adult insects

LITERATURE ON THE ORGANS AND PHYSIOLOGY OF RESPIRATION

a. On the tracheal system in general

b. On the Stigmata

c. On tracheal gills and tracheal respiration

d. Literature on rectal respiration

e. Physiology of Respiration

THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION

a. The male organs of reproduction

b. The female organs of reproduction

LITERATURE ON THE ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION

a. General

b. Formation of the egg (oögenesis)

c. On the spermatozoa

d. On the paired genital efferent passages

PART II. EMBRYOLOGY OF INSECTS

a. The egg

b. Maturation or ripening of the egg

c. Fertilization of the egg

d. Division and formation of the blastoderm[80]

e. Formation of the first rudiments of the embryo, and of the embryonic membranes

f. Formation of the external form of the body

g. The appendages

h. Nervous system

i. Dorsal closure and involution of the embryonic membranes

j. Formation of the germ-layers

k. Farther development of the mesoderm. Formation of the body-cavity

l. Formation of organs

m. Length of embryonic life

n. The process of hatching

LITERATURE ON EMBRYOLOGY

PART III.—THE METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS

a. The nymph as distinguished from the larval stage

b. Stages or stadia of metamorphosis

c. Ametabolous and metabolous stages

THE LARVA

a. The Campodea-form type of larva

b. The eruciform type of larva

LITERATURE ON ANCESTRY OF INSECTS, ETC

c. Growth and increase in size of the larva

d. The process of moulting (ecdysis)

THE PUPA STATE

a. The pupa considered in reference to its adaptation to its surroundings and its relation to phylogeny

c. The cremaster

FORMATION OF THE PUPA AND IMAGO IN THE HOLOMETABOLOUS INSECTS (THE DIPTERA EXCEPTED)

a. The Lepidoptera

b. The Hymenoptera

DEVELOPMENT OF THE IMAGO IN THE DIPTERA

a. Development of the outer body-form

b. Development of the internal organs of the imago

c. General summary

HYPERMETAMORPHISM

SUMMARY OF THE FACTS AND SUGGESTIONS AS TO THE CAUSES OF METAMORPHISM

LITERATURE ON POSTEMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT AND METAMORPHOSES

INDEX

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A. S. Packard

Published by Good Press, 2021

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Wood-Mason considered it to be a myriopod, and “the descendant of a group of myriopods from which the Campodeæ, Thysanura, and Collembola may have sprung.” We are indebted to Grassi for the first extended work on the morphology of Scolopendrella (1885). In 1886 he added to our knowledge facts regarding the internal anatomy, and gives a detailed comparison with the Thysanura, besides pointing out the resemblances of Scolopendrella to Pauropus, diplopods, chilopods, as well as Peripatus.

In 1888 Grassi expressed his view as to the position of the Symphyla, stating that it should not be included in the Thysanura, since it evidently has myriopod characters; these being the supraspinal vessel, the ventral position of the genital glands; the situation of the genital opening in the fourth segment of the trunk, its ganglionic chain being like that of diplopods, its having limbs on all the segments, etc. On the other hand, Grassi has with much detail indicated the points of resemblance to the Thysanura. The principal ones are the thin integument, the want of sympathetic ganglia, the presence of a pair of cephalic stigmata, like that said to occur in certain Collembola, and in the embryo of Apis; two endoskeletal processes situated near the ventral fascia of the head; the epicranial suture also occurring in Thysanura, Collembola, Orthoptera, and other winged insects, and being absent in diplopods and chilopods. He also adds that the digestive canal both in Symphyla and Thysanura is divided into three portions; the malpighian tubes in Thysanura present very different conditions (there being none in Japyx), among which may be comprised those of Scolopendrella. In both groups there is a single pair of salivary glands. The cellular epithelium of the mid-intestine of Scolopendrella is of a single form as in Campodea and Japyx. The fat-body, dorsal vessel, with its valves and ostia, are alike in the two groups, as are the appendages of the end of the abdomen, the anal cerci (cercopoda) of Scolopendrella being the homologues of the multiarticulate appendages of Lepisma, etc., and of the forceps of Japyx. In those of Scolopendrella, we have found the large duct leading from the voluminous silk-gland, a single large sac extending forwards into the third segment from the end of the body (Fig. 15, s. gl). Other points of resemblance, all of which he enumerates, are the slight differences in the number of trunk-segments, the presence in the two groups of the abdominal “false-legs” (parapodia), the dorsal plate, and the mouth-parts. As regards the latter, Grassi affirms that there is a perfect parallelism between those of Scolopendrella and Thysanura. To this point we will return again in treating more especially of those of the Symphyla. Finally, Grassi concludes that there is “a great resemblance between the Thysanura and Scolopendrella.” He, however, believed that the Symphyla are the forerunners of the myriopods, and not of the insects, his genealogical tree representing the symphylan and thysanuran phyla as originating from the same point, this point also being, rather strangely, the point of origin of the arachnidan phylum.

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