Оглавление
Allan T. Kirkpatrick. Internal Combustion Engines
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Internal Combustion Engines. Applied Thermosciences
Copyright
Preface
Acknowledgements
About the Companion Website
Chapter 1 Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines. 1.1 Introduction
1.2 Historical Background
1.3 Engine Cycles
Spark‐Ignition Engine
Compression Ignition Engine
Two‐Stroke Cycle
1.4 Engine Performance Parameters. Engine Geometry
Engine Work, Power, Torque, and Mechanical Efficiency
Mean Effective Pressure
Volumetric Efficiency
Example 1.1 Volumetric Efficiency
Solution
Specific Fuel Consumption
Air–Fuel and Equivalence Ratios
Example 1.2 Engine Performance Parameters
Solution
Engine Kinematics
Scaling of Engine Performance
1.5 Engine Configurations
Intake and Exhaust Valve Arrangement
Superchargers and Turbochargers
Fuel Injectors and Carburetors
Cooling Systems
1.6 Examples of Internal Combustion Engines. Automotive Spark‐Ignition Four‐Stroke Engine
Heavy‐Duty Truck Diesel Engine
Stationary Gas Engine
1.7 Alternative Powertrain Technology
Electric Motors
Fuel Cells
Gas Turbines
1.8 Further Reading
1.9 References
1.10 Homework
Chapter 2 Ideal Gas Engine Cycles. 2.1 Introduction
2.2 Gas Cycle Energy Addition
2.3 Constant Volume Energy Addition
Example 2.1 Otto Gas Cycle Analysis
Solution
2.4 Constant Pressure Energy Addition
2.5 Limited Pressure Cycle
2.6 Miller Cycle
Example 2.2 Miller Cycle Analysis
Solution
2.7 Ideal Four‐Stroke Process and Residual Fraction
Exhaust Stroke
Intake Stroke
Four‐Stroke Otto Gas Cycle Analysis
Example 2.3 Four‐Stroke Otto Cycle
Solution
2.8 Finite Energy Release. Spark‐Ignition Energy Release
Example 2.4 Rate of Energy Release
Solution
Compression Ignition Energy Release
Energy Equation
Example 2.5 Finite Energy Release
Solution
Cylinder Heat and Mass Transfer Loss
Example 2.6 Finite Energy Release with Heat and Mass Loss
Solution
Compression Ignition Energy Release
Example 2.7 Compression Ignition Energy Release
Solution
2.9 References
2.10 Homework
Chapter 3 Thermodynamic Properties of Fuel–Air Mixtures. 3.1 Introduction
3.2 Properties of Ideal Gas Mixtures
Example 3.1 Properties of Ideal Gas Mixtures
Solution
Specific Heats of Gas Mixtures
3.3 Liquid–Vapor–Gas Mixtures
3.4 Stoichiometry
Example 3.2 Stoichiometry of Air–Fuel Mixtures
Solution
3.5 Chemical Equilibrium
Example 3.3 Equilibrium Mole Fractions
Solution
3.6 Low Temperature Combustion Modeling
Example 3.4 Rich Octane Combustion
Solution
Fuel–Air–Residual Gas
Example 3.5 Fuel–Air–Residual Gas
Solution
3.7 Chemical Equilibrium Using Lagrange Multipliers
3.8 Chemical Equilibrium Using Equilibrium Constants
Example 3.6 Equilibrium Combustion Mole Fraction
Solution
Thermodynamic Properties of Combustion Products
3.9 Isentropic Compression and Expansion
Example 3.7 Isentropic Fuel–Air Processes
Solution
Availability Change for an Isentropic Compression or Expansion
Example 3.8 Isentropic Compression of a Fuel–Air Mixture
Solution
3.10 Chemical Kinetics
Arrhenius Rate Equations
Example 3.9 CO Reaction Rates
Solution
Chain Reactions
Global and Detailed Reaction Mechanisms
Global and Detailed Reactions for NO
Example 3.10 NO Formation
Solution
3.11 References
3.12 Homework
Chapter 4 Thermodynamics of Combustion. 4.1 Introduction
4.2 First‐Law Analysis of Combustion
Open‐System Energy Equation
Example 4.1 Open‐System Energy Equation
Solution
Heat of Combustion
Example 4.2 Heat of Combustion
Solution
Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Example 4.3 Adiabatic Flame Temperature
Solution
4.3 Second‐Law Analysis of Combustion
Example 4.4 Heat of Combustion and Available Energy of Combustion
Solution
4.4 Fuel–Air Otto Cycle
Example 4.5 Fuel–Air Otto Cycle
Solution
4.5 Four‐Stroke Fuel–Air Otto Cycle
Example 4.6 Four‐Stroke Fuel–Air Otto Cycle
Solution
4.6 Limited‐Pressure Fuel–Air Cycle
Example 4.7 Fuel‐Injected Limited‐Pressure Fuel–Air Cycle
Solution
4.7 Two‐Zone Finite‐Energy Release Model
Example 4.8 Two‐Zone Fuel–Air Finite Energy Release
Solution
4.8 Compression Ignition Engine Fuel–Air Model
Example 4.9 Single Zone Compression Ignition Energy Equation
Solution
4.9 Comparison of Fuel–Air Cycles with Actual Spark and Compression Ignition Cycles
4.10 Further Reading
References
4.11 Homework
Chapter 5 Intake and Exhaust Flow. 5.1 Introduction
5.2 Flow Through Intake and Exhaust Valves. Compressible Flow Modeling
Discharge and Flow Coefficients
Example 5.1 Exhaust Valve Flow
Solution
Example 5.2 Discharge and Flow Coefficients
Solution
Valve Mach Index
Example 5.3 Intake Valve Area
Solution
Valve Timing and Lift Profiles
Intake and Exhaust Stroke Analysis
Valve Flow Energy Release Model
Example 5.4 Inlet and Exhaust Stroke Cylinder Pressure and Mass Flowrate
Solution
Example 5.5 Effect of Valve Timing on Volumetric Efficiency
Solution
5.3 Intake and Exhaust Manifold Flow
5.4 Airflow in Two‐Stroke Engines. Two‐Stroke Scavenging Configurations
Performance Parameters
Two‐Stroke Scavenging Models
5.5 Superchargers and Turbochargers. Background
Positive Displacement and Dynamic Compressors
Centrifugal Compressor Performance and Efficiency
Compressor Performance Maps
Compressor Velocity Diagrams
Radial Turbine Performance and Efficiency
Turbine Velocity Diagrams
Compressor‐Engine Matching
Example 5.6 Supercharger‐Engine Match
Solution
Example 5.7 Turbocharger Performance
Solution
5.6 Further Reading
5.7 References
5.8 Homework
Chapter 6 Fuel and Air Flow in the Cylinder. 6.1 Introduction
6.2 Fuel Injection – Spark Ignition. Fuel Injection Systems
6.3 Fuel Injection – Compression Ignition. Diesel Injection Systems
Example 6.1 Diesel Fuel Injector Sizing
Solution
6.4 Fuel Sprays
Spray Formation
Example 6.2 Fuel Spray Droplet Size and Velocity
Solution
Droplet Evaporation
Example 6.3 Droplet Evaporation
Solution
6.5 Gaseous Fuel Injection
Example 6.4 Natural Gas Fuel Injection
Solution
6.6 Prechambers
Prechambers for Spark‐Ignition Engines
Prechambers for Diesel Engines
6.7 Carburetion
6.8 Large‐Scale In‐Cylinder Flow. Introduction
Swirl and Tumble
Squish
6.9 In‐Cylinder Turbulence. In‐Cylinder Turbulent Flow Measurement Techniques
Turbulent Velocity
Turbulent Length Scales
Example 6.5 Turbulence Length, Velocity, and Time Scales
Solution
Zero‐Dimensional Turbulence Models
Multi‐Dimensional Turbulence Models
Computational Simulation of In‐Cylinder Turbulent Flow Fields
6.10 Further Reading
6.11 References
6.12 Homework
Chapter 7 Combustion Processes in Engines. 7.1 Introduction
7.2 Combustion in Spark‐Ignition Engines. Spark Ignition
Laser Spark Ignition
Combustion Visualization
Combustion Analysis
Turbulent Flame Propagation
7.3 Abnormal Combustion (Knock) in Spark‐Ignition Engines. Knocking Combustion
Modeling of Engine Knock
Example 7.1 Spark‐Ignition Engine Knock
Solution
7.4 Combustion in Compression Ignition Engines. Combustion Diagnostics
Compression Ignition Combustion Process
Ignition Delay
Example 7.2 Diesel Engine Ignition Delay
Solution
Energy Release in Premixed and Diffusion Combustion
Multi‐zone Models of Diesel Combustion
Multidimensional Numerical Models of Diesel Combustion
7.5 Low Temperature Combustion. Introduction
Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)
Partially Premixed Compression Ignition (PPCI)
Reactivity Controlled Compression Ignition (RCCI)
Kinetic Modeling of Low‐ and High‐Temperature Combustion
Example 7.3 Kinetic Modeling of n‐Heptane and Iso‐Octane Combustion
Solution
7.6 Further Reading
7.7 References
7.8 Homework
Chapter 8 Emissions. 8.1 Introduction
8.2 Nitrogen Oxides
Example 8.1 NO Formation with a Two Zone Finite Energy Release Model
Solution
8.3 Carbon Monoxide
8.4 Hydrocarbons
HC Emissions from Spark‐Ignition Engines
HC Emissions from Compression Ignition Engines
8.5 Particulates
Soot Combustion Models
Example 8.2 Soot Formation and Oxidation Rates
Solution
Soot Reduction Techniques
8.6 Emissions Regulation and Control
Combustion Process Control
Ignition Timing and Exhaust Gas Recirculation
Catalytic Converters
Control Techniques for Lean Combustion Engines
Example 8.3 SCR Injection System
Solution
Diesel Particulate Filters
8.7 Further Reading
References
8.9 Homework
Chapter 9 Fuels. 9.1 Introduction
9.2 Refining
9.3 Hydrocarbon Chemistry
9.4 Thermodynamic Properties of Fuel Mixtures
Octane Number
Cetane Number
9.5 Gasoline Fuels
Reformulated Gasoline (RFG) and Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS)
Gasoline Additives
9.6 Alternative Fuels for Spark‐Ignition Engines
Example 9.1 Flexible Fuel Engine
Solution
Propane
Natural Gas
Ethanol
Methanol
Hydrogen
Ammonia
9.7 Diesel Fuels
Alternative Fuels for Compression Ignition Engines
Example 9.2 Biodiesel Fuel Injection
Solution
9.8 Further Reading
References
9.9 Homework
Chapter 10 Friction and Lubrication. 10.1 Introduction
10.2 Friction Coefficient
10.3 Engine Oils
Shear Rate Dependence of Engine Oils
10.4 Friction Power and Mean Effective Pressure
10.5 Friction Measurements
10.6 Friction Scaling Parameters
10.7 Piston and Ring Friction
Piston Skirt and Ring Friction Correlations
Piston Ring Hydrodynamic Friction Modeling
Example 10.1 Piston Ring Oil Film Friction, Pressure, and Thickness
Solution
Piston Skirt Side Thrust and Friction
10.8 Journal Bearings
Journal Bearing Friction
Journal Bearing Pressure Profile
Example 10.2 Journal Bearing Friction, Pressure and Film Thickness Profiles
Solution
10.9 Valve Train Friction
10.10 Accessory Friction
10.11 Pumping Mean Effective Pressure
10.12 Overall Engine Friction Mean Effective Pressure
Example 10.3 Friction Mean Effective Pressure
Solution
10.13 Further Reading
References
10.15 Homework
Chapter 11 Heat and Mass Transfer. 11.1 Introduction
11.2 Engine Cooling Systems
11.3 Engine Energy Balance
11.4 Heat Transfer Measurements
11.5 Heat Transfer Modeling
Transport Properties of Gas Mixtures
11.6 Heat Transfer Correlations
Overall Average Heat Transfer Coefficient
Example 11.1 Overall Average Heat Transfer Coefficient
Solution
Instantaneous Cylinder Average Heat Transfer Coefficient
Example 11.2 Comparison of Annand and Woschni Heat Transfer Correlations
Solution
11.7 Radiation Heat Transfer. Background
Radiation Absorption and Emission
Soot Emissivity and Emissive Power
Example 11.3 Thermal Radiation
Solution
11.8 Heat Transfer in the Exhaust System
Radiation in Engine Exhaust Systems
11.9 Mass Loss or Blowby
11.10 Further Reading
11.11 References
11.12 Homework
Chapter 12 Engine Instrumentation and Testing. 12.1 Introduction
12.2 Instrumentation. Dynamometers
Crank Angle
Engine Speed
Fuel Flow Measurement
Air Flow Measurement
Fuel flowrate
Manifold and Ambient Air Pressure
Throttle Position
Exhaust Gas Recirculation
Inlet Air and Coolant Temperature
12.3 Combustion Analysis
12.4 Exhaust Gas Analysis
Carbon Dioxide and Carbon Monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen Oxides
Particulates
Other Pollutants
Exhaust Gas Oxygen Concentration
Fuel–Air Equivalence Ratio
Example 12.1 Fuel–Air Equivalence Ratio
Solution
Residual Mass Fraction
12.5 Control Systems in Engines
12.6 Vehicle Emissions Testing
12.7 Further Reading
12.8 References
12.9 Homework
Chapter 13 Overall Engine Performance. 13.1 Introduction
13.2 Effect of Engine Size, Bore, and Stroke
Example 13.1 Scaling of Engine Cylinders
Solution
13.3 Effect of Engine Speed
13.4 Effect of Air–Fuel Ratio and Load
13.5 Engine Performance Maps
Example 13.2 Engine Sizing
Solution
13.6 Effect of Ignition and Injection Timing
13.7 Effect of Compression Ratio
13.8 Vehicle Performance Simulation
13.9 Further Reading
References
13.11 Homework
Appendix A Conversion Factors and Physical Constants
Appendix B Physical Properties of Air
Appendix C Thermodynamic Property Tables for Various Ideal Gases
Appendix D Curve‐Fit Coefficients for Thermodynamic Properties of Various Fuels and Ideal Gases
Appendix E Detailed Thermodynamic and Fluid Flow Analyses. E.1 Thermodynamic Derivatives
E.2 Numerical Solution of Equilibrium Combustion Equations
E.3 Isentropic Compression/Expansion with known ΔP
E.4 Isentropic Compression/Expansion with known Δv
E.5 Constant Volume Combustion
E.6 Quality of Exhaust Products
Example E.1 Quality of Exhaust Products
Solution
E.7 Finite Difference Form of the Reynolds Slider Equation
E.8 Reference
Appendix F Computer Programs
F.1 Volume.m
F.2 Velocity.m
F.3 BurnFraction.m
F.4 FiniteHeatRelease.m
F.5 FiniteHeatMassLoss.m
F.6 CIHeatRelease.m
F.7 FourStrokeOtto.m
F.8 RunFarg.m
F.9 farg.m
F.10 fuel.m
F.11 RunEcp.m
F.12 ecp.m
F.13 AdiabaticFlameTemp.m
F.14 OttoFuelAir.m
F.15 FourStrokeFuelAir.m
F.16 TwoZoneFuelAir.m
F.17 Fuel_Injected.m
F.18 LimitPressFuelAir.m
F.19 ValveFlow.m
F.20 Droplet.m
F.21 Kinetic.m
F.22 Soot.m
F.23 TwoZoneNO.m
F.24 RingPressure.m
F.25 Friction.m
F.26 HeatTransfer.m
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
