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Annabel Ness Evans. Methods in Psychological Research
Methods in Psychological Research
Methods in Psychological Research
Brief Contents
Detailed Contents
Preface
What’s New in the Fourth Edition
APA Formatting and Style
End-of-Chapter Material. Answers to Conceptual Exercises
FAQ
Chapter Exercises and Projects
Ancillaries. Student Study Site
Instructor Teaching Site
Acknowledgments
About the Authors
About the Contributors
1 Introduction to Research in Psychology. Objectives
Acquiring Knowledge About the World
Tradition or Tenacity: I Believe It Is True Because It Has Always Been True
Intuition: I Believe It Is True Because I Feel It Is True
Authority: I Believe It Is True Because an “Expert” Says It Is True
Personal Experience: I Believe It Is True Because I Experienced It
Reasoning: I Believe It Is True Because It Is Logically Derived
Empiricism: I Believe It Is True Because I Measured It
Science
Conceptual Exercise 1A
Psychology—Science and Art
Critical Thinking
The Critical Thinking Process
Objectives of Science
To Describe
To Explain
To Predict
To Control
The Tenets of Science
Determinism
Empiricism
Replicability
Falsifiability
Parsimony
Conceptual Exercise 1B
The Scientific Method
Theories, Concepts, and Hypotheses
Why We Do Research. To Evaluate a Theory
To Satisfy Our Curiosity
To Demonstrate a New Technique
To Demonstrate a Behavioral Phenomenon
To Investigate the Conditions Influencing Behavioral Phenomena
Approaches to Research
Descriptive Versus Explanatory Research
Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research
Basic Versus Applied Research
Cross-Sectional Versus Longitudinal Research
Field Versus Laboratory Research
Steps in Planning and Doing Research
Selecting a Research Topic. From Life Experience
Conceptual Exercise 1C
From Existing Research
Common Sense
A New Technology
Generating Testable Hypotheses
Classifying Variables
Selecting an Appropriate Design
Planning the Method and Carrying It Out
Analyzing Results
Drawing Conclusions
Sharing Your Findings
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises
Conceptual Exercise 1A
Conceptual Exercise 1B
Conceptual Exercise 1C
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Ancillaries
2 Understanding the Research Literature. Objectives
Searching the Literature
The Research Article
The Abstract
The Introduction
Independent Variable
Dependent Variable
Conceptual Exercise 2A
Moderating Variables
Mediating Variables
The Method
The Results
Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Common Tests of Significance
The Discussion
Basic Statistical Procedures. Tests of Significance. t Test
F Test
Chi-Square Test
Conceptual Exercise 2B
Other Nonparametric Tests
Pearson’s r Test
Regression
Confidence Intervals
More Complex Statistical Procedures. Multiple Regression
Partial Correlation
Semipartial Correlation
Logistic Regression
Factor Analysis
Cluster Analysis
Structural Equation Modeling
Discriminant Function Analysis
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 2A
Conceptual Exercise 2B
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Ancillaries
3 Research in Psychology An Ethical Enterprise. Objectives
Are Ethical Codes Necessary?
General Principles
Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility
Principle C: Integrity
Principle D: Justice
Conceptual Exercise 3A
Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity
Ethical Standards
2. Competence. 2.01 Boundaries of Competence
3. Human Relations. 3.01 Unfair Discrimination
3.02 Sexual Harassment
3.03 Other Harassment
3.04 Avoiding Harm
Conceptual Exercise 3B
3.05 Multiple Relationships
Conceptual Exercise 3C
3.08 Exploitative Relationships
3.10 Informed Consent
4. Privacy and Confidentiality. 4.01 Maintaining Confidentiality
4.02 Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality
4.05 Disclosures
Conceptual Exercise 3D
4.06 Consultations
4.07 Use of Confidential Information for Didactic or Other Purposes
8. Research and Publication. 8.01 Institutional Approval
8.02 Informed Consent to Research
General Procedure
A Study of Prognosis and Cause With Acting-Out Behavior in Children
Consent
8.03 Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research
8.04 Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants
8.05 Dispensing With Informed Consent for Research
8.06 Offering Inducements for Research Participation
8.07 Deception in Research
8.08 Debriefing
Conceptual Exercise 3E
8.09 Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research
8.10 Reporting Research Results
8.11 Plagiarism
Special Populations
Internet Research
Bias and Intellectual Honesty
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 3A
Conceptual Exercise 3B
Conceptual Exercise 3C
Conceptual Exercise 3D
Conceptual Exercise 3E
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Ancillaries
4 Hypothesis Testing, Power, and Control A Review of the Basics. Objectives
Three Levels of Hypotheses
Conceptual Exercise 4A
Testing the Null Hypothesis
Statistical Significance
Inferential Errors: Type I and Type II
Conceptual Exercise 4B
Power and How to Increase It
Scale
Design
Sample
Treatment
Effect Size
The Role of Replication in Research
Conceptual Exercise 4C
External and Internal Validity
Confounding and Extraneous Variables
Controlling Extraneous Variables. Elimination
Constancy
Secondary Variable as an IV
Randomization: Random Assignment of Participants to Groups
Repeated Measures
Statistical Control
Conceptual Exercise 4D
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 4A
Conceptual Exercise 4B
Conceptual Exercise 4C
Conceptual Exercise 4D
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Ancillaries
5 Measuring Variables. Objectives
Ways of Asking Questions
Fixed-Alternative Questions
Conceptual Exercise 5A
Open-Ended Questions
Rating Scales
Likert Scales
Semantic Differential
Social Desirability and Response Set
Measuring Observed Behavior
Conceptual Exercise 5B
Levels of Measurement
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Conceptual Exercise 5C
The Importance of Precision in Measurement
Reliability of Measurement
Validity of Measurement
Face Validity
Construct Validity
Content Validity
Criterion and Predictive Validity
Conceptual Exercise 5D
Tests, Scales, and Inventories
Commercially Available Tests and Inventories
Standardized Tests of Intelligence
Tests of Personality. Standardized Tests
Projective Tests of Personality
Other Specialized Tests
Finding an Appropriate Test: An Example
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 5A
Conceptual Exercise 5B
Conceptual Exercise 5C
Conceptual Exercise 5D
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Ancillaries
6 Selecting Research Participants. Objectives
Sampling Methods
Probability Sampling
Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Conceptual Exercise 6A
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Multistage Sampling
Conceptual Exercise 6B
Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Quota Sampling
Referral Sampling
Conceptual Exercise 6C
Recruitment
Sample and Effect Size
Power Revisited
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 6A
Conceptual Exercise 6B
Conceptual Exercise 6C
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Ancillaries
7 Experimental Design Independent-Groups Designs. Objectives
Why We Do Experiments
Conceptual Exercise 7A
Steps in Conducting an Experiment. Step 1. Formulate a Hypothesis
Step 2. Select Appropriate IVs and DVs
Step 3. Limit Alternative Explanations for Variation
Step 4. Manipulate the IVs and Measure the DVs
Step 5. Analyze the Variation in the DVs
Step 6. Draw Inferences About the Relationship Between IVs and DVs
Where We Do Experiments
Controlled Experiments in the Laboratory
Experiments in the Field
Conceptual Exercise 7B
How We Do Experiments: Independent-Groups Designs
Completely Randomized Groups Designs: One IV
Randomized Groups Design: One IV With Two Levels. The Research Problem
The Hypotheses
Selection of Participants and Assignment to Conditions
The Independent Variable and Dependent Variables
The Design
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Randomized Groups Design: One IV With More Than Two Levels
The Research Problem
Simulated Cell Phone Distraction Experiment
The Groups
The Distraction
The Hypotheses
Selection of Participants and Assignment to Conditions
The Independent Variable and the Dependent Variable
The Design
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Randomized Factorial Groups Designs: More Than One IV
The Research Problem
The Online Conditioning Experiment
The Hypotheses
Selection of Participants and Assignment to Conditions
The Independent Variables and the Dependent Variable
The Design
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Discussion
Independent-Groups Designs: One IV and One Participant Variable
The Research Problem
Jealousy-Provoking Facebook Experiment
Selection of Participants and Assignment to Conditions
The Independent Variable and Dependent Variables
The Design
The Hypotheses
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Discussion
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 7A
Conceptual Exercise 7B
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Ancillaries
8 Experimental Design Dependent-Groups and Mixed Designs. Objectives
Dependent-Groups Designs
Within-Participants Designs
Dealing With Carryover Effects in Within-Participants Designs
The Research Problem
The Hypotheses
Selection of Participants and Assignment to Conditions
The Independent Variable and Dependent Variables
The Design
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Conceptual Exercise 8
Matched-Groups Designs
The Research Problem
The Hypothesis
Selection of Participants and Assignment to Conditions
The Independent and Dependent Variables
The Design
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Mixed Designs
The Research Problem
The Hypothesis
Selection of Participants and Assignment to Conditions
The Independent Variable and Dependent Variables
The Design
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Chapter Summary
Answer to Conceptual Exercise. Conceptual Exercise 8
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Ancillaries
9 Experimental Design Single-Participant Designs/The Operant Approach. Objectives
Single-Participant Design and the Experimental Analysis of Behavior
Concepts in the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. Operant
Phase
Baseline
Treatment
Length of Phase
Changing Phase
Measuring the Response
ABA and ABAB Withdrawal Designs
The Research Problem
The Objectives
The Independent and Dependent Variables
The Design
The Results
The Conclusions
Conceptual Exercise 9A
Multiple-Baseline Design
The Research Problem
The Objectives
Selection of Participants and Assignment to Conditions
The Independent Variable and the Dependent Variable
The Design
The Results
The Conclusions
Alternating-Treatment Design
The Research Problem
The Objectives
The Independent and Dependent Variables
The Design
The Results
The Conclusions
Changing-Criterion Design
The Research Problem
The Objectives
The Independent and Dependent Variables
The Design
The Results
The Conclusions
Conceptual Exercise 9B
Advantages and Disadvantages of Single-Participant Designs
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 9A
Conceptual Exercise 9B
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Ancillaries
10 Nonexperimental Research Finding Relationships Among Variables. Objectives
Quasi-Experiments
Conceptual Exercise 10A
Time-Series Designs
Interrupted Time-Series Design
The Research Problem
The Hypothesis
The Measured Variables
The Design
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusion
Multiple Time-Series Design
Conceptual Exercise 10B
Nonequivalent-Groups Designs
The Research Problem
The Hypothesis
The Design
The Statistical Analyses
The Results
The Conclusions
Conceptual Exercise 10C
Longitudinal Research
The Research Problem
The Hypotheses
Selection of Participants
The Measured Variables
The Method
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Discussion
Cross-Sectional Research
The Research Problem
The Hypothesis
The Participants
The Measured Variables
The Method
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusion
Conceptual Exercise 10D
Case Studies
The Research Problem
The Participants
Data Collection
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusion
Correlational Research
The Research Problem
The Hypotheses
The Participants
The Measured Variables
The Design
The Results
The Conclusions
The Research Problem
The Hypothesis
The Participants
The Measured Variables
The Design
The Results
The Conclusions
Conceptual Exercise 10E
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 10A
Conceptual Exercise 10B
Conceptual Exercise 10C
Conceptual Exercise 10D
Conceptual Exercise 10E
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Ancillaries
11 Data Collection Methods. Objectives
Observational Research: Observing the Behavior of Individuals
Observing Behavior From the Outside: Naturalistic Observation
The Research Problem
The Hypotheses
Selection of Participants
The Variables
The Method
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Observing Behavior From the Inside: Participant Observation
The Research Problem
Internet Research Ethics
Selection of Participants
The Research Questions
The Method
The Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Observing Behavior in a Controlled Setting: Laboratory Observation
The Research Problem
The Hypotheses
Selection of Participants
The Variables
The Design
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Advantages and Disadvantages of Observational Research
Conceptual Exercise 11A
Survey Research: Asking People Questions About Their Behavior
Defining Your Research Question
How Will You Ask Your Questions?
Interviews
Face-to-Face Interview
Advantages and Disadvantages of Face-to-Face Interviews
The Research Problem
The Hypothesis
Selection of Participants
The Procedure
The Method
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Telephone Interview
Advantages and Disadvantages of Telephone Interviews
The Research Problem
The Hypothesis
Selection of Participants
The Measured Variables
The Method
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Conceptual Exercise 11B
Questionnaires. Self-Administered Questionnaires
Group-Administered Questionnaires
The Research Problem
The Objectives
Selection of Participants
The Measured Variables
The Method
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Main Effects
The Interaction Effects
The Conclusions
Mail-Out Questionnaires
Conceptual Exercise 11C
Internet Questionnaires
General Guidelines for Writing Survey Questions
Type of Questions
General Rules for Self-Administered Questionnaires
Observing Group Behavior: The Focus Group
The Research Problem
The Hypotheses
Selection of Participants
The Method
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 11A
Conceptual Exercise 11B
Conceptual Exercise 11C
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Appendix: Ways to Increase Response Rates to Mail-Out Surveys
Ancillaries
12 Program Evaluation, Archival Research, and Meta-Analytic Designs. Objectives
Program Evaluation
Determining Need
Selecting Outcome Measures
Conceptual Exercise 12A
Ethical Constraints on Program Evaluation Research
The Research Problem
The Needs Analysis
The Program
The Goals
The Outcome Measures
The Participants
The Results
Conceptual Exercise 12B
The Conclusions
Archival Research
Collecting Information From an Archive
Rules and Regulations
Planning Your Research
At the Archive
Collecting Archival Information Online
Conceptual Exercise 12C
A Word of Warning
The Research Problem
The Archives
The Objectives
The Measured Variables
The Statistical Analysis and Results
The Witnesses to the Crime
The Suspects of the Crime
The Discussion
Meta-Analysis
The Research Problem
The Objectives
The Statistical Analysis
The Results
The Conclusions
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 12A
Conceptual Exercise 12B
Conceptual Exercise 12C
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Ancillaries
13 Analyzing, Interpreting, and Summarizing Research Data. Objectives
What Are Statistics, and Why Are They Necessary?
Summarizing Your Data With Descriptive Statistics. Describing Central Tendency
Calculating Measures of Central Tendency
Conceptual Exercise 13A
Describing Variability
Calculating Measures of Variability
Describing Central Tendency and Variability of Levels of Variables. Describing Nominal Variables
Describing Ordinal Variables
Describing Interval Variables
Describing Ratio Variables
Income: Positively Skewed Distribution
Conceptual Exercise 13B
Making Inferences From Your Data
Testing the Statistical Significance of Your Research Findings
t Tests. t Test: Independent-Groups Design
t Test: Dependent-Groups Design
F Tests
One-Way ANOVA
One-Way ANOVA With Repeated Measures
Two-Way ANOVA
Chi-Square Tests for Frequency Differences
Correlation Tests of Significance
Pearson’s r Test
Spearman’s Rank-Order Correlation Test
Choosing the Appropriate Test of Significance
More on Data Analysis With Computers
Conceptual Exercise 13C
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 13A
Conceptual Exercise 13B
Conceptual Exercise 13C
FAQ
Ancillaries
14 Communicating in Psychology. Objectives
Writing in Psychology
Plagiarism
Conceptual Exercise 14A
References and In-Text Citations
APA Primer
Avoiding Sexist Language and Stereotyping
Common Problems With Student Writing
Conceptual Exercise 14B
Personification
Conceptual Exercise 14C
That Versus Which Clauses
Conceptual Exercise 14D
Noun–Pronoun Disagreement
Ambiguous Referents
Conceptual Exercise 14E
Run-On Sentences
Sentence Fragments
Conceptual Exercise 14F
Wrong Word
Conceptual Exercise 14G
Amount Versus Number
Affect Versus Effect
Then Versus Than
Other Assorted No-Nos We Find Particularly Aggravating
Conceptual Exercise 14H
Presenting Research in Writing
The Term Paper/Literature Review
The Research Report
Cover Page
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Participants
Materials
Apparatus
Procedure
Results
Bar Graphs for Discrete Data
Histograms for Continuous Data
Scattergrams for Bivariate Data
Other Ways of Graphing Data
Discussion
Reference Page
Appendices
General Typing Guidelines for Term and Research Papers
A Sample Experimental Report
Other Ways of Presenting Research. Oral Presentations
Poster Presentations
Chapter Summary
Answers to Conceptual Exercises. Conceptual Exercise 14A
Conceptual Exercise 14B
Conceptual Exercise 14C
Conceptual Exercise 14D
Conceptual Exercise 14E
Conceptual Exercise 14F
Conceptual Exercise 14G
Conceptual Exercise 14H
FAQ
Chapter Exercises
Chapter Projects
Appendix: Research Report Checklist
Ancillaries
Glossary
References
Index
