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C. Philip Wheater. Practical Field Ecology
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Practical Field Ecology
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Boxes
List of Case Studies
List of Plates
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgements
About the Companion Website
1 Preparation
Choosing a topic for study
Box 1.1 Some sources of ecology projects
Ecological research questions
Monitoring individual species and groups of species
Monitoring species richness
Monitoring population sizes and density
Monitoring community structure
Monitoring behaviour
A note of caution
Case Study 1.1 The development of a novel net for sampling bats emerging from tree roosts
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenge was resolved
Advice for students wanting to work with bats
Creating aims, objectives, and hypotheses
Reviewing the literature
Primary literature
Secondary literature
Other sources of information
Search terms
Reading papers
Practical considerations
Legal aspects
Ethical issues
Health and safety issues
Box 1.2 Suggested minimum equipment required for fieldwork. Always recommended
Recommended depending on terrain, weather, and timing and extent of work
Implementation
Case Study 1.2 Processing and transporting marine microbes from one of the most remote places on earth
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenge was resolved
Advice for students working under challenging conditions
Equipment and technical support
Field/laboratory notebook
Box 1.3 Keeping a field notebook
What should be recorded?
Pilot studies
Time management
Box 1.4 Some tips on time management
Statistical considerations in project design
Designing and setting up experiments and surveys
Choosing sampling methods
Types of data
Box 1.5 Differences between interval and ratio data
Sampling designs
Box 1.6 Terms used in sampling theory. See also the Glossary of statistical terms in Appendix 1
Box 1.7 Aspects to be considered when determining the sample size. A larger sample size is needed when there is:
Box 1.8 Species accumulation curves for two sites
Planning statistical analysis
Describing data
Asking questions about data
Predictive analysis
Multivariate analysis
Examining patterns and structure in communities
Summary
Case Study 1.8 Monitoring dung beetle richness in East Africa
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenge was resolved
Advice for students wanting to study dung beetles
Box 1.9 Checklist for field research planning
Notes
2 Monitoring Site Characteristics
Site selection
Site characterisation
Habitat mapping
Box 2.1 Notes on the resources available for the National Vegetation Classification (NVC)
Box 2.2 Examples of vegetation classification systems
Box 2.3 An example of a code of practice for the use of drones
Case Study 2.1 Proximal sensing from lightweight drones
Model system and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students deploying drones for ecosystem surveys
Examination of landscape scale
Measuring microclimatic variables
Monitoring substrates
Box 2.4 Calculations of soil moisture and organic contents
Monitoring water
Other physical attributes
Measuring biological attributes
Box 2.5 Measurements of freshwater invertebrates used in habitat quality and pollution monitoring
Identification
Box 2.6 Examples of identification guides for British insects
Collection of key works
Field guides
General insects
Habitat‐orientated guides
Guides for specific groups
Information available as digital media
Keys
Keys available as digital media
AIDGAP keys
Monographs and specialist works from learned societies
Notes
3 Sampling Plants and Other Static Organisms
Box 3.1 Calculating population and density estimates from counts of static organisms
Sampling for static organisms
Box 3.2 Techniques used to identify and count microbial diversity
Seeds, fecundity, and population dynamics
Quadrat sampling
Case Study 3.1 The Park Grass experiment
Model system and research challenges faced
How the challenge was resolved
Advice for students wanting to use planned experiments
Density estimation using quadrats
Frequency estimation using quadrats
Cover estimation using quadrats
Biomass estimation within quadrats
Quadrat size
Nested quadrats
Placement of quadrats
Quadrat shape
Pin‐frames
Transects
Plotless sampling
Box 3.3 Commonly used plotless sampling methods
Distribution of static organisms
Box 3.4 Describing the distribution of static organisms using quadrat‐based methods
Box 3.5 Describing the distribution of static organisms using T‐square sampling methods
Forestry techniques
Tree diameter
Case Study 3.5 Studying tree growth and condition
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students wanting to study trees
Tree basal area
Height of trees
Timber volume
Growth
Canopy cover
Age and mortality
Notes
4 Sampling Mobile Organisms
General issues
Case Study 4.1 Using DNA metabarcoding to analyse the gut contents of spiders
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students
Distribution of mobile organisms
Direct observation
Behaviour
Case Study 4.2 Cracking the chemical code in mandrills
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students wanting to study chemical communication in primates
Box 4.1 Avoiding problems in behavioural studies
Bias
Measurement
Analysis
Indirect methods
Capture techniques
Case Study 4.3 Barnacle larva trap
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students wanting to develop novel techniques
Marking individuals
Radio‐Tracking
Population dynamics
Invertebrates
Direct observation
Butterfly census method
Box 4.2 Butterfly census method
Box 4.3 Calculating the density of flying insects from census walks
Indirect methods
Using insect sounds
Capture techniques
Killing and preserving invertebrates
Marking individuals
Case Study 4.4 Tarantula distribution and behaviour
Model organisms and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students wanting to study tarantulas
Capturing aquatic invertebrates
Case Study 4.5 Stream invertebrates
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice to students wanting to study aquatic systems
Netting
Suction sampling
Benthic coring
Drags, dredges, and grabs
Wet extraction
Artificial substrate samplers
Baited traps and refuges
Capturing soil‐living invertebrates
Sieving
Floatation and phase‐separation
Tullgren funnels and similar methods of dry extraction
Chemical extraction
Electrical extraction
Capturing ground‐active invertebrates
Pitfall traps
Case Study 4.6 Collecting insects in Costa Rica
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students wanting to study insects overseas
Box 4.4 Taking account of missing traps
Suction samplers
Emergence traps
Capturing invertebrates from plants
Case Study 4.7 Butterfly life cycles
Model organisms and research challenges
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students wanting to study butterflies
Pootering
Sweep netting
Beating
Fogging
Capturing airborne invertebrates
Case Study 4.8 The birds and the bees
Model system and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students wanting to study a multi‐component ecosystem
Sticky traps
Using attractants
Refuges
Flight interception traps
Light traps
Case Study 4.9 Constructing low‐cost moth traps
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students using light traps
Rotary traps
Water (pan) traps
Fish
Direct observation
Indirect methods
Capture techniques
Nets and traps
Collecting fish larvae
Electrofishing
Marking individuals
Case Study 4.10 Lake fish populations
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students wanting to study lake fish
Amphibians
Case Study 4.11 Breeding behaviour of neotropical tree frogs
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice to students wishing to study tree frogs
Direct observation
Indirect methods
Counting egg masses
Using environmental DNA (eDNA)
Capture techniques
Sampling adults in water
Sampling adults on land
Tadpoles
Juveniles/metamorphs
Marking individuals
Reptiles
Direct observation
Indirect methods
Capture techniques
Case Study 4.12 Reptile diet
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students wanting to study reptiles
Hand‐capture
Traps
Marking individuals
Birds
Direct observation
Timed species count
Common bird census/breeding bird survey
Box 4.5 Common birds census for territory mapping
Point counts
Transect line counts
Distance sampling
Case Study 4.13 Counting parrots
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students wanting to study parrots
Flush counts
Indirect methods
Counting nests at a distance
Bird song
Capture techniques
Box 4.6 Restrictions on handling birds
Mist netting
Propelled nets
Marking individuals
Mammals
Direct observation
Indirect methods
Capture techniques
Case Study 4.14 Bat conservation ecology
Model organism and research challenges faced
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students wanting to study bats
Marking individuals
Notes
5 Analysing and Interpreting Information
Box 5.1 A note of caution about the examples used in this chapter
Box 5.2 Some commonly used statistical software
Keys to tests
Box 5.3 Important terms used in the keys
Box 5.4 Some suggested statistical texts. Standard reference texts
Multivariate analyses
R package
Exploring and describing data
Transforming and screening data
Graphical display of data
Measures of central tendency and sample variability
Spatial and temporal distributions
Population estimation techniques: densities and population sizes
Box 5.5 The Peterson (Lincoln index) method of population estimation
Richness and diversity
Similarity, dissimilarity, and distance coefficients
Recording descriptive statistics
Testing hypotheses using basic statistical tests and simple general linear models
Box 5.6 Testing for significance when carrying out multiple tests
Differences between samples
Box 5.7 Multiple comparison tests
Relationships between variables
Associations between frequency distributions
Box 5.8 Using a contingency table in frequency analysis
More advanced general linear models for predictive analysis. Multiple regression
Analysis of covariance and multivariate analysis of variance
Box 5.9 Analysis of covariance
Discriminant function analysis
Box 5.10 Using classification tables in predictive discriminant function analysis
Generalized linear models
Box 5.11 Generalized linear model: a worked example using a binomial regression
Extensions of the generalized linear model
Box 5.12 Generalized additive model (GAM)
Extensions of generalized linear models and GAMs into mixed‐effects models
Statistical methods to examine pattern and structure in communities: classification, indicator species, and ordination
Classification
Classification techniques when the number of groups is known
Box 5.13 Distance measurements
Significance testing for group membership: analysis of similarity (ANOSIM)
Box 5.14 Use of ANOSIM
Classification techniques when the number of groups is unknown
Box 5.15 Examples of agglomerative clustering methods
Indicator species analysis
Ordination
Indirect gradient analysis
Box 5.16 Using principal components analysis for data compression
Box 5.17 Using principal components analysis to produce biplots
Box 5.18 Example of distance placement using MDS
Comparing ordinations and matrix data
Box 5.19 Techniques for comparing ordinations and matrix data
Direct gradient analysis
Box 5.20 Example of use of canonical correspondence analysis
Understanding the biplot
Notes
6 Presenting Information
Written reports
Title
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Contents
Introduction
Methods
Results
Illustrations (Tables, Figures, Plates, Equations, etc.)
Discussion
References
Citing papers
Box 6.1 Citing works using the Harvard system
Quotes
Personal communications
Box 6.2 Reference lists using the Harvard system
Journals (single or multiple author)
Books and pamphlets. Single author
Multiple author
Section/chapter in an edited volume
Acts of parliament
Web pages
Appendices
Archiving data
Authors' contributions
Writing style
Tense
Passive tense
Numbers
Abbreviations
Punctuation
Choice of font
Common mistakes
Box 6.3 Commonly misused words
Computer files
Specific guidance for writing for a journal
Specific guidance for preparing a poster
Case Study 6.1 Poster presentation
Model organisms and challenges faced in communicating complex results
How the challenges were resolved
Advice for students when designing a poster
Specific guidance for preparing an oral presentation
Summary
Notes
Appendix 1 Glossary of Statistical Terms
References
Index
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