Common Science

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Carleton Washburne. Common Science

Common Science

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COMMON SCIENCE

CHAPTER ONE

GRAVITATION

Fig. 1. The water in the tube rises to the level of the water in the funnel

Fig. 2. Where is the best location for the tank?

Fig. 3. When the tank is full, will the oil overflow the top of the tube?

Fig. 4. When the point is knocked off the electric lamp, the water is forced into the vacuum

Fig. 5. The water is held in the tube by air pressure

Fig. 6. An air pump

Fig. 7. The experiment with the Magdeburg hemispheres

Fig. 8. A siphon. The air pushes the water over the side of the pan

Fig. 9. A glass model suction pump

Fig. 10

Inference Exercise

Fig. 11. The battleship is made of steel, yet it does not sink

Fig. 12. The upper tube is filled with water and the lower with oil. What will happen when she pulls the cardboard out?

Inference Exercise

Fig. 13. The Leaning Tower of Pisa

Fig. 14

Fig. 15. In this cylinder the center of weight is so high that it is not over the bottom if the cylinder is tipped to any extent. So the cylinder falls over easily and lies quietly on its side

Fig. 16. But in this one the center of weight is so low that it is over the base, no matter what position the cylinder is in

Fig. 17. So even if the cylinder is laid on its side it immediately comes to an upright position again

Fig. 18. Which vase would be the hardest to upset?

Inference Exercise

CHAPTER TWO

MOLECULAR ATTRACTION

Fig. 19. Will the water be drawn up higher in the fine glass tube or in a tube with a larger opening?

Fig. 20. The water rises through the lamp wick by capillary attraction

Inference Exercise

Fig. 21. As the finger is raised the water is drawn up after it

Inference Exercise

Fig. 22. El Capitan, Yosemite Valley, California. If the force of cohesion were suspended, a mountain like this would immediately become the finest dust

Fig. 23. The mercury does not wet the finger, and as the finger is lifted the mercury does not follow it

Inference Exercise

Fig. 24. Hockey is a fast game because there is little friction between the skates and the ice

Fig. 25. The friction of the stone heats the nail and wears it away

Inference Exercise

CHAPTER THREE

CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Fig. 26. The little girl raises the big boy, but in doing it she moves twice as far as he does

Fig. 27. The yardstick is a lever by which he lifts the pail

Fig. 28. A lever with the weight between the fulcrum and the force

Fig. 29. You cannot pinch hard enough this way to hurt

Fig. 30. But this is quite different

Fig. 31. When the handle is turned the blades of the egg beater move much more rapidly than the hand. Will they pinch hard enough to hurt?

Fig. 32. His hand goes down as far as the pail goes up

Fig. 33. With this arrangement the pail travels more slowly than the hand. Will it seem heavier or lighter than with the arrangement shown in Figure 32?

Inference Exercise

Fig. 34. When the paper is jerked out, the glass of water does not move

Try these experiments:

Fig. 35. When a boy is moving rapidly, it takes force to change the direction of his motion

Inference Exercise

Fig. 36. Why doesn't the water spill out?

Fig. 37. An automobile race. Notice how the track is banked to keep the cars from overturning on the curves

Inference Exercise

Fig. 38. The horse goes forward by pushing backward on the earth with his feet

Fig. 39. As he starts to toss the ball up, will he weigh more or less?

Fig. 40. Action and reaction are equal; when he pushes forward on the ropes, he pushes backward with equal force on the seat

Inference Exercise

Inference Exercise

CHAPTER FOUR

HEAT

Fig. 41. A thermometer

Fig. 42. A thermometer made of a flask of water. It does not show the exact degree of heat of the water, but it does show whether the water is hot or cold

Fig. 43. Will the hot ball go through the ring?

Fig. 44. When the wire is cold, it is fairly tight

Fig. 45. But notice how it sags when it is hot

Inference Exercise

Fig. 46. The expansion of the compressed gas freezes the moisture on the tube

Inference Exercise

Fig. 47. Why did the bottle break when the water in it turned to ice?

Inference Exercise

Fig. 48. An evaporating dish

Fig. 49. Diagram illustrating how in the evaporation of water some of the molecules shoot off into the air

Fig. 50. A view of the Dead Sea

Inference Exercise

Fig. 51. In a minute the cork will fly out

Fig. 52. A toy balloon has been slipped over the mouth of a flask that is filled with steam

Fig. 53. As the steam condenses and leaves a vacuum, the air pressure forces the balloon into the flask

Fig. 54. Will boiling water get hotter if you make it boil harder?

Fig. 55. By distillation clear alcohol can be separated from the water and red ink with which it was mixed

Inference Exercise

Fig. 56. The metal balls are fastened to the iron and glass rods with drops of wax

Fig. 57. Does the heat travel faster through the iron or through the glass?

Fig. 58. Convection currents carrying the heat of the stove about the room

Fig. 59. Diagram of a hot-water heater. What makes the water circulate?

Inference Exercise

CHAPTER FIVE

RADIANT HEAT AND LIGHT

Fig. 60. It is by radiation that we get all our heat and light from the sun

Fig. 61. How a thermos bottle is made. Notice the double layer of glass in the broken one

Inference Exercise

Fig. 62. The ball bounces from one boy to the other, but it does not return to the one who threw it

Fig. 63. In the same way, the light bounces (reflects) from one boy to the other. It does not return to the point from which it started and neither boy can see himself

Fig. 64. How should the mirror be placed?

Inference Exercise

Fig. 65. In passing through the prism the light is bent so that an object at b appears to be at c

Fig. 66. The pencil is not bent, but the light that comes from it is

Fig. 67. The bending of the light by the water in the glass causes the pencil to look broken

Fig. 68. The light is bent when it enters a window pane and is bent again in the opposite direction when it leaves it

Inference Exercise

Fig. 69. When the light from one point goes through the lens, it is bent and comes together at another point called the focus

Fig. 70. The light from each point of the candle flame goes out in all directions

Fig. 71. The reading glass is a lens which focuses the light from the candle flame and forms an image

Fig. 72. The light from the tip of the candle flame is focused at one point

Fig. 73. And the light from the base of the flame is focused at another point

Fig. 74. The light from the tip and base (and from every other point) of the flame is, of course, focused at the same time. In this way an image of the flame is formed

Fig. 75. The light spreads out again beyond the focus

Fig. 76. So if the light comes to a focus before it reaches the paper, the image will be blurred

Fig. 77. Or if the light reaches the paper before it comes to a focus, the image will be blurred

Fig. 78. Lenses of different kinds

Inference Exercise

Fig. 79. A section of the eye

Fig. 80. How an image is formed on the retina of the eye

Fig. 81. A simpler diagram showing how an image is formed in the eye

Fig. 82. A diagram showing how a reading glass causes things to look larger by making the image on the retina larger

Fig. 83. Diagram showing how a reading glass enlarges the image on the retina. More lines are drawn in than in Figure 82

Fig. 84. Diagram of a microscope

Fig. 85. This is the way a concave mirror forms a magnified image

Fig. 86. The concave mirror forms an image of the burning candle

Fig. 87. The great telescope of the Yerkes Observatory at Lake Geneva, Wisconsin

Inference Exercise

Fig. 88. The sunlight is scattered (diffused) by the clouds. The photograph shows in the foreground the Parliament Buildings, London, England

Fig. 89. How the droplets in a cloud scatter the rays of light

Inference Exercise

Fig. 90. Making a rainbow on the wall

Fig. 91. The prism separates the white light into the rainbow colors

Fig. 92. When the wheel is rapidly whirled the colors blend to make white

Fig. 93. Which color is warmest in the sunlight?

Fig. 94. A mercury-vapor lamp

Fig. 95. Explain why the breakers are white and the sea green or blue

Inference Exercise

CHAPTER SIX

SOUND

Fig. 96. An interesting experiment in sound

Fig. 97. When the air is pumped out of the jar, you cannot hear the bell ring

Fig. 98. Making a phonograph record on an old-fashioned phonograph

Fig. 99. A modern dictaphone

Fig. 100. How the apparatus is set up

Fig. 101. When the tuning fork vibrates, the glass needle makes a wavy line on the smoked paper on the drum

Inference Exercise

Fig. 102. When the wave reaches the end of the sink, it is reflected back. Sound waves are reflected in the same way

Inference Exercise

Fig. 103. When the prongs of the tuning fork are made longer or shorter, the pitch of the sound is changed

Inference Exercise

CHAPTER SEVEN

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY

Fig. 104. The compass needle follows the magnet

Fig. 105. Magnetizing a needle

Fig. 106. A compass made of a needle and a piece of cardboard

Fig. 107. Diagram of molecules in unmagnetized iron. The north and south poles of the molecules are supposed to be pointing in all directions

Fig. 108. Diagram of magnetized iron. The north and south poles of the molecules are all supposed to point in the same direction

Inference Exercise

Fig. 109. When the comb is rubbed on the coat, it becomes charged with electricity

Fig. 110. The charged comb picks up pieces of paper

Inference Exercise

CHAPTER EIGHT

ELECTRICITY

Fig. 111. A wet battery of three cells connected to ring a bell

Fig. 112. A battery of three dry cells

Fig. 113. A storage battery

Fig. 114. Spinning loops of wire between the poles of a magnet causes a current of electricity to flow through the wire

Fig. 115. The more loops there are, the stronger the current

Fig. 116. If the electricity passes through a lamp on its way around the circuit the filament of the lamp glows

Fig. 117. A dynamo in an electric light plant

Fig. 118. The magneto in an automobile is a small dynamo

Inference Exercise

Fig. 119. Electricity flows through the coin

Fig. 120. Will electricity go through the glass?

Fig. 121. Electrical apparatus: A, plug fuse; B, cartridge fuse; C, knife switch; D, snap switch; E, socket with nail plug in it; F, fuse gap; G, flush switch; H, lamp socket; I, J, K, resistance wire

Fig. 122. Which should he choose to connect the broken wires?

Inference Exercise

Fig. 123. Electricity flows around a completed circuit somewhat as water might be made to flow around this trough

Fig. 124. Diagram of the complete circuit through the laboratory switches

Fig. 125. Parallel circuits

Fig. 126. How should he connect them?

Inference Exercise

Fig. 127. The ground can be used in place of a wire to complete the circuit

Fig. 128. Grounding the circuit. The faucet and water pipe lead the electricity to the ground

Fig. 129. How the lamp and wire are held to ground the circuit

Fig. 130. How can the electric iron be used after one wire has been cut?

Inference Exercise

Fig. 131. Feeling one live wire does not give her a shock, but what would happen if she touched the gas pipe with her other hand?

Inference Exercise

Fig. 132. Pencils ready for making an arc light

Fig. 133. The pencil points are touched together and immediately drawn apart

Fig. 134. A brilliant arc light is the result

Fig. 135. An arc lamp. The carbons are much larger than the carbons in the pencils, and the arc gives an intense light

Inference Exercise

Fig. 136. A, the "fuse gap" and B, the "nail plug."

Fig. 137. What will happen when the pin is thrust through the cords and the electricity turned on?

Inference Exercise

Fig. 138. The magnetized bolt picks up the iron filings

Fig. 139. Sending a message with a cigar-box telegraph

Fig. 140. Connecting up a real telegraph instrument

Fig. 141. Diagram showing how to connect up two telegraph instruments. The circles on the tables represent the binding posts of the instruments

Fig. 142. Telegraphing across the room

Letters

Numerals

Fig. 143. The bell is rung by electromagnets

Fig. 144. A toy electric motor that goes

Fig. 145. An electric motor of commercial size

Inference Exercise

CHAPTER NINE

MINGLING OF MOLECULES

Fig. 146. Will heating the water make more salt dissolve?

Fig. 147. Will the volume be doubled when the alcohol and water are poured together?

Inference Exercise

Fig. 148. Alum crystals

Inference Exercise

Fig. 149. Filling a test tube with gas

Fig. 150. The lower test tube is full of air; the upper, of gas. What will happen when the cardboard is withdrawn?

Fig. 151. Pouring the syrup into the "osmosis tube."

Inference Exercise

Fig. 152. Filling the barometer tube with mercury

Fig. 153. Inverting the filled tube in the cup of mercury

Fig. 154. Finding the pressure of the air by measuring the height of the mercury in the tube

Fig. 155. The kind of mercury barometer that you buy

Fig. 156. An aneroid barometer is more convenient than one made with mercury. The walls are forced in or spring back out according to the pressure of the air. This movement of the walls forces the hand around

Fig. 157. Different forms of snowflakes. Each snowflake is a collection of small ice crystals

Fig. 158. If you blow gently over ice, you can see your breath

Inference Exercise

Fig. 159. The glass does not leak; the moisture on it comes from the air

Inference Exercise

CHAPTER TEN

CHEMICAL CHANGE AND ENERGY

Fig. 160. The electrodes are made of loops of platinum wire sealed in glass tubes

Fig. 161. Water can be separated into two gases by a current of electricity

Fig. 162. Filling a balloon with hydrogen

Fig. 163. Adding more acid without losing the gas

Fig. 164. Trying to see if hydrogen will burn

Fig. 165. Filling a bottle with oxygen

Fig. 166. The iron really burns in the jar of oxygen

Inference Exercise

Fig. 167. The water rises in the bottle after the burning candle uses up the oxygen

Fig. 168. The Bunsen burner smokes when the air holes are closed

Fig. 169. Regulating the air opening in a gas stove

Fig. 170. The air openings in the front of a gas stove

Inference Exercise

Fig. 171. Why doesn't the flame above the wire gauze set fire to the gas below?

Fig. 172. The part of the match in the middle of the flame does not burn

Inference Exercise

Fig. 173. The silver salt on the paper remains white where it was shaded by the key

Figs. 174 and 175. Where the negative is dark, the print is light

Inference Exercise

Fig. 176. The copper and the nickel cube ready to hang in the cleansing solution

Fig. 177. Cleaning the copper in acids

Fig. 178. Plating the copper by electricity

Inference Exercise

Inference Exercise

Fig. 179. The explosion of 75 pounds of dynamite. A "still" from a motion-picture film

Fig. 180. Diagram of the cylinder of an engine. The piston is driven forward by the explosion of the gasoline in the cylinder

Fig. 181. The most powerful explosions on earth occur in connection with volcanic activity. The photograph shows Mt. Lassen, California, the only active volcano in the United States

Inference Exercise

CHAPTER ELEVEN

SOLUTION AND CHEMICAL ACTION

Inference Exercise

Fig. 182. Etching copper with acid

Fig. 183. Strong acids will eat holes like this in cloth

Inference Exercise

Fig. 184. The lye has changed the wool cloth to a jelly

Inference Exercise

Inference Exercise

Fig. 185. Making a glass of soda lemonade

Inference Exercise

CHAPTER TWELVE

ANALYSIS

Fig. 186. The platinum loop used in making the borax bead test

Fig. 187. Making the test

Fig. 188. The white powder that is forming is a silver salt

Fig. 189. The limewater test shows that there is carbon dioxid in the air

Inference Exercise

General Review Inference Exercise

APPENDIX

A. The Electrical Apparatus

Fig. 190. Electrical apparatus: At the right are the incoming wires. Dotted lines show outlines of fuse block. A, 2 cartridge fuses, 15 A; B, 2 plug fuses, 10 A; C, knife switch; D, fuse gap; E, snap switch; F, H, lamp sockets; G, flush switch; I, J, K, nichrome resistance wire, No. 24 (total length of loop, 6 feet), passing around porcelain posts at left

B. Construction of the Cigar-box Telegraph

Fig. 191. The cigar-box telegraph

INDEX

CONSERVATION SERIES

Conservation Reader

WORLD BOOK COMPANY

INDIAN LIFE AND INDIAN LORE

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INSECT ADVENTURES

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TREES, STARS and BIRDS

A BOOK OF OUTDOOR SCIENCE

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SCIENCE for BEGINNERS

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NEW-WORLD SCIENCE SERIES

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INDIAN LIFE AND INDIAN LORE. THE HERO OF THE LONGHOUSE

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CHEMCRAFT

THE PORTER CHEMICAL COMPANY

CALUMET BAKING POWDER

VENUS

PENCILS

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Carleton Washburne

Published by Good Press, 2019

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CHAPTER SEVEN

MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY

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