Оглавление
Carol A. Chapelle. The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics
Thematic List of Entries. Analysis of Context of Language Use
Analysis of Language Use
Language Assessment and Testing
Language Learning and Teaching
Language Policy and Planning
Language for Specific Purposes
Linguistic Analysis for Applied Problems
Multilingualism
Research Methods
Second Language Development
Technology and Language
Translation and Interpreting
World Englishes
Alphabetical List of Entries
General Editor
Contributors
Introduction to The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics
Defining Applied Linguistics
Problems in Applied Linguistics
Research in Applied Linguistics
Reading The Concise Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Acknowledgments
A Adverbs
Form and Function
Classification
Semantic Roles
Adverbs in Discourse
References
Suggested Readings
African Union
Introduction
Colonialism, Postcolonialism, and Language Policy and Ideologies
The African Union and Africa's Past Language Policies
The African Union and Attitudes Toward African Languages
The African Union and Prospects for the Indigenous African Languages
References
Suggested Readings
Agency in Second Language Acquisition
Significance of Agency in SLA: A Theoretical Overview
Theoretical Perspectives on Agency in SLA
Agency From Sociocultural Perspectives
Agency From Poststructuralist and Critical Perspectives
Research Into Agency in L2 Learning and Teaching
Conclusion
References
Suggested Reading
Note
Analysis of Dialogue
Dialogues
Organization
Intersubjectivity
Social Context
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Analysis of Gender in Interaction
What Is Gender in Human Interaction?
The Polysemy of Gendered Language
References
Suggested Readings
Anthropological Linguistics
References
Suggested Readings
Aptitude in Second Language Acquisition
References
Suggested Readings
Assessment in the Classroom
Approaches of Classroom Assessment
Assessment for Summative Purposes or Assessment of Learning
Assessment for Formative Purposes or Assessment for Learning
Assessment as Learning
The Role of Standards in Classroom Assessment
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Assessment of Cultural Knowledge
Introduction
Conceptualizing Cultural Knowledge
The Nature of Instruments Assessing Cultural Knowledge
Intercultural Development
Cultural Identity
Cultural Values
Cultural Adjustment
Culture Learning
Selected Cultural Knowledge Assessment Instruments
The Intercultural Development Inventory
Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure‐Revised
Sociocultural Adaptation Scale‐Revised
Cultural Intelligence Scale (CQS)
Conclusion
References
Online Resources
Note
Assessment of Integrated Skills
Test Tasks
Computer Madness
Research in the Assessment of Integrated Skills
Benefits of Integrated Assessment
Challenges of Integrated Assessment
Development
Reliability and Rating
Validity
Conclusions
References
Suggested Readings
Assessment of the Linguistic Resources of Communication
Representing the Linguistic Resources of Communication
Conceptualizing L2 Proficiency as Knowledge of Grammatical Forms
Conceptualizing L2 Proficiency as a Set of Resources for Communicating Contextualized Meanings
Measuring the Linguistic Resources of Communication
Conclusion
References
Note
Assessment of Listening
Listening Processes
Factors Affecting Listening
Tasks for Assessing Listening
Limitations of Listening Assessment Tasks
Computers in Assessing Listening
Current and Future Directions in Assessing Listening
References
Suggested Readings
Assessment of Pragmatics
The Construct
Tests Under the Speech Act Construct
Measurement of Interactional Abilities
Challenges in Testing L2 Pragmatics
Conclusion
References
Assessment of Reading
Brief History of Reading Research
Linguistic Knowledge and Reading Ability
Orthographic Knowledge
Phonological Knowledge
Morphological Knowledge
Vocabulary Knowledge
Syntactic Knowledge
Discourse Knowledge
Reading Ability in a Second Language
Reading Assessment in a Second Language
Unique Challenges in L2 Reading Assessment
Future Directions in Second Language Reading Assessment
References
Suggested Readings
Assessment of Speaking
Speaking Assessment Methods
Rating Scales and Scale Descriptors
Raters
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Assessment of Vocabulary
Introduction
Selection of Target Items
Design of Assessments
Recognition
Recall
Comprehension
Use
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Assessment of Writing
Purposes of Writing Tests
The Nature of Second Language Writing
Types of Writing Assessments
Characteristics of Writing Tests: Tasks and Scoring
Task Features
Scoring Features
Challenges and Opportunities for the Future
References
Suggested Readings
Attention, Noticing, and Awareness in Second Language Acquisition
Introduction
Theoretical Approaches to the Roles of Attention and Awareness in SLA
Schmidt's Noticing Hypothesis
Tomlin and Villa's Functional Model of Input Processing in SLA
Robinson's Model of the Relationship between Attention and Memory
Leow's Model of the L2 Learning Process in ISLA
Attention/Noticing and Learning: Empirical Evidence in SLA
Awareness and Learning in SLA
Empirical Evidence for the Role of Awareness in SLA
Learning Without Awareness?
Where Do We Go From Here?
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Attitudes and Motivation in Bilingual Education
Introduction
Attitudes
Motivation
Different Motivational Models
Minority Languages
Foreign Languages: Global English
Conclusions
References
Suggested Readings
Audiovisual Translation
Multimedia Translation
AVT Modalities
Dubbing
Subtitling
Fansubbing
Accessibility
References
Authenticity in the Language Teaching Curriculum
Authentic Materials in a Historical Context
Reasons for Using Authentic Materials
Critiques
Pedagogical Challenges
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Automatic Speech Recognition
Definition
Historical Overview
Challenges and Applications of ASR
ASR in Applied Linguistics
Automatic Rating of Pronunciation
Other ASR Applications in Applied Linguistics
Future Directions
References
Suggested Readings
B Bilingualism and Cognition
Bilingualism and Language
Phonological Accents
Grammatical Accents
Semantic Accents
Bilingualism and Nonverbal Cognition. Bilingualism and Linguistic Relativity
Bilingualism and Intelligence
Bilingualism and Executive Control
References
Suggested Readings
Bilingual and Monolingual Language Modes
Language Mode. Description
Movement Along the Language‐Mode Continuum
Impact on Language Behavior
Evidence for Language Mode
Language Mode in Different Groups of Bilinguals
Highly Language‐Dominant Bilinguals
Multilinguals
Interpreters
Deaf Bilinguals
Language Mode in Research
Language Mode as a Confounding Variable
Language Mode as a Control Variable
Modeling
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Note
C Case Study
Defining Case‐Study Research
Case Studies in Applied Linguistics
Issues in Case‐Study Research
Case Studies in Mixed Methods Research
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Chaos/Complexity Theory for Second Language Acquisition/Development
Introduction
Traditional Views of SLA
Shifting the Metaphor
Language Users/Learners
Usage‐Based Emergentism
Individual Differences
Implications for Research Methods
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Classroom Research
What Is Classroom Research?
What Are the Origins of L2 Classroom Research?
Are There Different Approaches to Classroom Research?
What Questions and Topics Are Examined in CR?
Future Directions in CR
References
Suggested Readings
Cognitive Approaches to Translation
Methodological Approaches
Translation as Information Processing and Symbol Manipulation
Translation as an Experiential, Cultural Act
Translation as Situated, Sociocognitive Interaction
References
Collaborative Language Learning
References
Suggested Readings
Computer‐Assisted Language Learning Effectiveness Research
Introduction
Research Findings on CALL Effectiveness
Approaches to Evaluating CALL Effectiveness
CALL Evaluation Argument
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Computer‐Assisted Pronunciation Teaching
Technology for Teaching Segmentals (Vowels and Consonants)
Feedback
Visual Acoustic Displays
Visual Articulatory Displays
Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR)
Technology for Teaching Suprasegmentals (Prosody, Intonation, Rhythm)
Visualization of Suprasegmentals
Use of Videos
Outlook for the Future
References
Suggested Readings
Computer‐Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS)
References
Suggested Reading
Online Resources
Computer‐Mediated Communication and Second Language Development
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Construction Grammar
Introduction
Construction Grammar: The Central Ideas
Applications
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Online Resource
Content‐Based Second/Foreign‐Language Instruction
Introduction
Three Main CBLI Models
Implementation Issues
Research Agenda
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Conversation Analysis and Affiliation and Alignment
Introduction
Distinguishing Affiliation and Alignment
Creating an Environment for Alignment and Affiliation
Aligning and Affiliating Are Interpretive Processes
Disaligning and Disaffiliating
Affiliating Without Aligning
Aligning Without Affiliating
Discussion
References
Suggested Readings
Conversation Analysis and Child Language Acquisition
Competencies and Understandings
Childhood: Interactions in Pre‐ and Early‐Years Primary School Settings
References
Suggested Reading
Conversation Analysis and Classroom Interaction
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Conversation Analysis of Computer‐Mediated Interactions
Future Trends
References
Suggested Readings
Conversation Analysis and Interactional Linguistics
Introduction
Basic Assumptions
Historical Development
Research Principles and Methods
Objects of Research
Findings
References
Suggested Readings
Conversation Analysis and Laughter
Introduction
The Interactional Environments of Laughter
The Contribution of Laughter Within Turns
Laughter as a Response
Laughter in Extended Sequences
Laughter and Social Context
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Conversation Analysis Methodology in Second Language Studies
Introduction
Compatibility of CA and L2 Studies
Types of Studies
Interactional Phenomena in Second Language Everyday Talk
Interactional Phenomena in Interactions‐for‐Learning
“Re‐specifying” SLA Concepts on the Basis of (Second Language) Conversations
Longitudinal Studies
Studies Aimed at Improving Learning Processes
CA Methodological and Procedural Positions in L2 Studies
Use of Naturally Occurring Data
Describing Interactional Phenomena or Interactional Practices
Unmotivated Looking
Membership Knowledge
Different Conceptions of “Learning”
In Conclusion: Applying CA to L2 Studies
References
Suggested Readings
Conversation Analysis and Second Language Acquisition: CA‐SLA
CA, SLA, and CA‐SLA
Reconceptualizing Learning and Cognition. Learning‐in‐Action
On the Observability of Sociocognitive Processes
Methodological Underpinnings
Analyzing L2 Interactions and Learning Environments
Analyzing L2 Learning
Evidence for Learning I: The Interactional Configuration of Patterns of Language Use
Evidence for Learning II: L2 Interactional Competence and Its Development Over Time
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Conversation Analysis: Transcriptions and Data
Transcriptions and Data
Recordings and Data
Transcription
Granularity and Readability
Economy
Page Design
Transcription Conventions
Specific Issues
References
Suggested Readings
Corpus Analysis of Business English
Corpora of Business English
Linguistic Analyses of Business English Corpora
Multidimensional Analysis of Business English Corpora
References
Suggested Readings
Corpus Analysis in Forensic Linguistics
Comparative Authorship Analysis
Authorship Profiling
Trademark Disputes
Determination of Meaning
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Corpus Analysis of Key Words
Introduction
Method: How Are Key Words Calculated?
Problems, Limitations, and Extensions of the Technique
Example Applications
References
Suggested Readings
Corpus Analysis of Political Language
Types of Corpus‐Assisted Studies Into the Language of Politics
Potential Sources of Data
Types of Research Objectives
The Added Value of Using Corpora
Modern Diachronic Corpus‐Assisted Discourse Studies (MD‐CADS)
Research as Activism or Research for Knowledge's Own Sake?
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Corpus Linguistics in Language Teaching
What Relevance Does Corpus Linguistics Have for Language Teaching?
Corpus Linguistics in the Classroom: Options for Language Teachers
Conclusions
References
Suggested Readings
Corpus Linguistics: Quantitative Methods
Introduction
Distinctive Collexeme Analysis
Applications
Ditransitive Versus Prepositional Datives
to‐ Versus ing‐ Complementation
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Council of Europe Language Policy and Planning
Introduction
Policy Documents and Tools in Support of Plurilingual People Living in Multilingual Societies
The European Centre for Modern Languages
References
Note
Critical Analysis of Political Discourse
References
Suggested Readings
Critical Pedagogy in Language Teaching
References
Suggested Readings
Critical Period
References
Suggested Readings
Cross‐Cultural Pragmatics
Context Shaping Meaning
Language Shaping Context
Common Ground
Fields of Application. Speech Act Theory
Politeness Theory
Applied Language Studies
Conclusions
References
Suggested Readings
Crosslinguistic Influence in Second Language Acquisition
Terminology
The Verification of CLI
Main Findings
Theoretical and Empirical Advances
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Cultural Approaches to Translation
Introduction
Translation From Cultures
Translating for Cultures
Reducing Difference
Highlighting Difference
Translating Between Cultures
References
Suggested Readings
D Difficulty and Complexity of Language Features and Second Language Instruction
Introduction
The Issues
The Evidence
The Problems and Challenges
Summary and Future Directions
References
Suggested Reading
Discourse and Identity
Social Identities in Discourse
Personal Identities in Narrative
Digital, Networked, and Posthuman Identities
References
Suggested Readings
E Early Bilingualism
Major Linguistic Developments in BFLA and ESLA
Applied Aspects of Early Bilingualism
References
Suggested Readings
English for Academic Purposes
Introduction
Generic or Specific Attributes in EAP?
Approaches to EAP. Study Skills
Grammatical Structures and Vocabulary Items
Discourse/Genre
Academic Literacies
Critical EAP
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
English in Asian and European Higher Education
References
Suggested Readings
Note
English for Business
Introduction
Researching Written and Spoken Business English
The Effects of Using English for Business
English for Business in the Future
References
Suggested Readings
English for Occupational Purposes
Introduction
Surveys in English for Occupational Purposes
Analyzing Language and Interactions at Work
English for Occupational Purposes in Different Workplace Settings
The Social Dimension of English for Occupational Purposes
Conclusion
References
English‐Only Movement
Historical Background
The Rise of the Contemporary English‐Only Movement
Propositions 227 and 203
Proposition 58 and the Future
References
Suggested Readings
Epistemology and Ontology
Introduction
Ontology Within Metaphysics
Epistemology
Theories of Knowledge in Mainstream and Second Language Research
Constructivist Epistemology and Second Language Research Knowledge
Knowledge of Second or Foreign Languages and Language Teachers' Knowledge
References
Ethnography of Communication as a Research Perspective
Hymes's Theoretical Model
“Doing Ethnography”
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Explicit Knowledge and Grammar Explanation in Second Language Instruction
What Is Explicit Knowledge?
Isolated or Integrated Grammar Instruction?
Grammar Explanation
Other Ways of Explaining Grammar
What to Explain
Taking the Learner Into Account
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
F First Language Vocabulary Acquisition
References
Suggested Readings
Foreign Accent
Why Is a Foreign Accent So Difficult to Overcome?
Two Main Linguistic Sources of Foreign Accent: L1 Transfer and Universals
Why Are Some Phenomena More Difficult to Learn Than Others?
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Form‐Focused Instruction
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Formulaic Language and Collocation
The Functions of Formulaic Language
Acquisition of Formulaic Language
Non‐Native Use of Formulaic Language
Amount of Use
Accuracy/Appropriacy of Use
Automaticity/Fluency of Use
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Formulaic Sequences
Definition
Functions
Evidence
Theoretical Issues
Formulaic Sequences in SLA
The Future
References
Suggested Readings
Frame Analysis
Bateson's Conception of Frame
“Frame,” “Keying,” and “Footing”
Various Perspectives of Frame Analysis: Interactive Frame and Cognitive/Knowledge Frame
Studies of Frame Analysis
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Functional Approaches to Translation
Historical Background
Basic Concepts and Ideas of Skopos Theory
Applications to Translator Training
Conclusions
References
Suggested Readings
G Genre‐Based Language Teaching
References
Suggested Readings
Genre and Discourse Analysis in Language for Specific Purposes
Discourse and Genre Analysis
Genre Structures and Features
Genre and Community
Genre Constellations
Genre Pedagogies
Critiques
Conclusions
References
Suggested Readings
Grammar in Academic Writing
Noun Phrase Characteristics
Thematization
Personal Pronouns
Tense
Cohesion
Hedging
Intertextuality, Citation, and Knowledge Claims
References
Suggested Readings
Grammar and Electronic Communication
Introduction
E‐Grammar in English
Typography
Orthography
Morphology
Syntax
Emoji Grammar
E‐Grammar and Language Change
E‐Grammar and Literacy
References
Suggested Readings
Note
H Heritage Languages and Language Policy
Defining Heritage Languages
Defining HL Learners
US Language Policy for Heritage Languages
Looking Ahead
References
Suggested Readings
Historical Pragmatics
Introduction
Approaches and Data. Approaches
Data
Application
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
History of Language‐Teaching Methods
Early History
Grammar Translation Method
Direct Method
Audio‐Lingual Method
Cognitive Approaches to Language Teaching
Communicative Language Teaching
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
History of Translation
The Object of Inquiry
Research Questions and Source Collection, Evaluation, and Interpretation
Writing Translation History
Sample Approaches to Translation History
Toward Integrative Translation History
References
Suggested Readings
I Identities and Language Teaching in Classrooms
Theories of the Social
Theories of the Sociomaterial
Explorations in Sociomaterialism
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Identity and Second Language Acquisition
Theoretical Framework
Changing Conceptions of the Individual
Changing Conceptions of Language
Changing Conceptions of Learning
Identity on the SLA Agenda
Key Directions in Identity Research
Identity and Investment
Identity and Social Categories
Identity and Digitally Mediated Language Learning
Conclusion
References
Immersion Education
Program Models and Outcomes
Pedagogical Issues
Conclusions
References
Suggested Readings
Innovation in Language Teaching and Learning
Introduction
Reasons for Educational Innovation
Innovation Implementation
Barriers to Innovation Implementation
The Importance of Secondary Innovations
References
Suggested Readings
Instructed Second Language Acquisition
References
Suggested Readings
Intelligibility in World Englishes
References
Suggested Readings
Intercultural Competence
Competence
Models of Intercultural Competence
Contexts and Applications
Assessment or Measuring of Intercultural Competence
References
Suggested Readings
Intercultural Interaction
Introduction
Culture and Achieving Understanding
Culture and the Management of Relations
Culture, Identity, and Personal Growth
Competence in Intercultural Interaction
References
Suggested Readings
Interlanguage
Origins of the Concept of Interlanguage
Defining Interlanguage
The Relevant Data for the Study of Interlanguage
The Revised Interlanguage Hypothesis
References
Suggested Readings
International Phonetic Alphabet. Introduction
History
The International Phonetic Alphabet, English Spelling, and Dictionaries
The International Phonetic Alphabet Itself
The International Phonetic Alphabet on the Computer
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Interviews in Qualitative Research
Forms of Interviewing in Qualitative Research
Designing Qualitative Studies That Use Interviews
Asking Questions
Issues in Conducting Interviews
Theorizing Interviews
Transcribing and Analyzing Interview Data
Quality in Interviewing
The Future of Interview Research
References
Suggested Readings
Online Resources
K Knowledge Base of Language Teachers
Teachers' Knowledge About Language
Teachers' Knowledge of Second Language Acquisition
Teachers' Identities, Moral Values, and Critical Consciousness
Language Teachers' Sense Making in Action
References
Suggested Readings
L Language, Culture, and Context
An Integrative View of Language
Language and Culture
Cultural Dimensions of Language
The Language–Culture Nexus in Context
References
Suggested Reading
Note
Language and Globalization
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Language and Identity
References
Suggested Readings
Language Ideology in the Discourse of Popular Culture
References
Suggested Readings
Language Ideology and Public Discourse
Language Ideology and Public Discourse
Language Ideologies: Differences and Commonalities
Public Versus Private?
Moving Beyond Language: Current Developments in Language Ideology Research
References
Suggested Readings
Language Planning: Qin Shihuangdi's Contribution
References
Suggested Readings
Language Policy and Planning: Kemal Atatürk’s Contribution
References
Suggested Reading
Note
Language Program Evaluation
Introduction to Program Evaluation
The Emergence of Language Program Evaluation
Contemporary Impetus for Language Program Evaluation
Characteristics of Contemporary Program Evaluation
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Language Teaching and Learning: Quantitative Methods
An Example Study
Method
Results
Conclusion
Additional Considerations
References
Suggested Reading
Appendix: Data Set
Languaging: Collaborative Dialogue as a Source of Second Language Learning
Definition
Collaborative Dialogue (CD) as a Source of Learning
Contexts Implicated in the Quality and Quantity of CD
Patterns of Interaction
Proficiency Differences
Task Characteristics
Mediational Means Used. Computer‐Mediated Communication (CMC)
Use of L1
Inseparability of Cognition and Emotion
Conclusion
References
Suggested Reading
Learner Beliefs in Second Language Learning
The Beginnings
The Classics
Continuation of Research Along Two Lines
Most Recent Research: Further Twists and Turns
Conclusion: Challenges and Directions for Future Research
References
Suggested Readings
Learner Corpora
Learner Corpus Design Criteria
Learner Corpus Typology
Generic Versus Local
Cross‐Sectional Versus Longitudinal
Spoken Versus Written
Learner Corpus Methodology. Corpus Annotation and Exploration
Contrastive Methodology
Learner Corpus Analysis
Learner Corpus‐Based Applications
Materials Design and Testing
Classroom Methodology
NLP Applications
References
Suggested Readings
Lexical Borrowing
Notable Examples
Factors That Encourage Lexical Borrowing
The Adaptations of Borrowing
Reactions to Lexical Borrowing
The Implications of Lexical Borrowing for Foreign/Second Language Study
Conclusion
References
Suggested Reading
Lexical Priming
References
Note
Lexicogrammar
Introduction
Systemic Functional Linguistics
Corpus Linguistics
References
Suggested Reading
Linguaculture
References
Suggested Readings
Lingua Franca and Language of Wider Communication
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Linguistic Imperialism
Expansion Through Linguistic Imperialism
Ongoing Tensions Between Linguistic Imperialism and Resistance
References
Suggested Readings
Linguistic Landscape Studies
Introduction
Earlier Studies
Emerging Themes
Language Policy
Spread of English
Minority Languages
Multimodality
Other Themes
Methodology
Outlook and Further Expansion
References
Suggested Readings
M Materials Development
Introduction
What Materials Do Language Learners Need?
Should Materials Be Forms or Meaning Focused?
Should Materials Be Contrived or Authentic?
Should Learners Be Asked to Practice or to Use the Language?
Should Materials Be Based on Theories of Language Acquisition?
Should Materials Be Global or Local?
What Role Can Technology Play in Facilitating Language Acquisition?
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Mixed Methods
Stances on Mixing Paradigms
Purposes of Mixing Methods
Mixed Methods Research Designs
Mixed Methods Data Analysis
Quality Issues in Mixing Methods
Using Mixed Methods in Applied Linguistics Research
References
Suggested Readings
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning
MALL in Relation to CALL
Typical Applications
Reading and Listening
Speaking and Writing
Location‐Specific Language Learning
Support for Informal Learning
Control Over Learning
Mobile Learners
Accessibility and Usability
MALL Within Mobile Learning
Summary
References
Suggested Readings
Motivation in Second Language Acquisition
References
Suggested Readings
Move Analysis
Move Analysis as an Analytical Approach
Move Analysis as a Pedagogical Approach
Move Analysis Crossing Boundaries
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Multicompetence
Premises of Multicompetence
Multicompetence and SLA Methodology
Effects of the L2 on the L2 User
Bilingual Cognition
Multicompetence and Language Teaching
Conclusions
References
Suggested Readings
Multilingualism and the Internet
Introduction
Defining the Internet
Different Ways of Using the Internet as a Source of Multilingual Data
Paradigms of Research on Multilingualism on the Internet
Macrosociolinguistic Studies of Language Choice and Diversity
Describing and Explaining Language Choice and Multilingual Language Practices
Multilingual Language Settings on the Internet
Multilingual Internet Discourse as Heteroglossia
Multilingualism on the Internet and Language Learning
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Multilingualism and Metalinguistic Awareness
Introduction: Multilingualism and General Cognitive Advantages
Types of Metalinguistic Awareness
Conditions Affecting the Development or Deployment of Metalinguistic Awareness. Proficiency Thresholds in Two Languages
Nature of Task
Metalinguistic Awareness: Learning to Read, Learning Other Languages. Metalinguistic Awareness Enhances Acquisition of Non‐Native Languages
Multilinguals and Metalinguistic Awareness as a Facilitator of Literacy
References
Suggested Readings
Multimodal Discourse Analysis
References
Suggested Readings
Multimodal Interaction Analysis
Background: Multimodal Interaction Analysis
Unit of Analysis
Modal Density Foreground–Background Continuum of Attention/Awareness
Horizontal Simultaneity of Actions
Vertical Simultaneity of Actions
Using Multimodal Interaction Analysis as a Method
References
Suggested Readings
Multimodality and Systemic Functional Analysis
Introduction
What Is SF Theory?
SF‐MDA
SF‐MDA in Two Dimensions: Page and Screen
SF‐MDA in Three Dimensions: Space and Embodied Meaning
SF‐MDA and Time: Movement and Trajectories
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Multimodal Teaching and Learning
Multimodality
Teaching
Learning
Teaching and Learning with L2 Students
References
Suggested Readings
Note
N Natural Language Processing and Language Learning
NLP and the Analysis of Learner Language. Intelligent Language Tutoring Systems
Learner Corpora
NLP and the Analysis of Native Language for Learners
References
Suggested Readings
Needs Analysis
A Rationale for Needs Analysis
Units of Analysis in NA
Stage 1 of a Task‐Based NA: Identifying Target Tasks
Stage 2 of a Task‐Based NA: Analysis of Target Discourse
From NA to Syllabus
References
Suggested Readings
Needs Analysis and Syllabus Design for Language for Specific Purposes
Introduction
The Role and Importance of Needs Analysis
Trends in Scope and Methods
From Needs Analysis to Specification of Syllabus Content
The Role of Theory
Issues in Needs Analysis
Conclusion
References
New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension
Literacy as Deixis
How Should We Conceptualize Literacy as a Deictic Construct?
A Dual‐Level Theory of New Literacies
The New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension
Reading to Identify Important Questions
Reading to Locate Information
Reading to Critically Evaluate Information
Reading to Synthesize Online Information
Reading and Writing to Communicate Online Information
What Do We Know About the New Literacies of Online Research and Comprehension?
What Do We Need to Know About the New Literacies of Online Reading Comprehension?
The Internet Is a Literacy Issue, Not a Technology Issue
Literacy Is the Internet—the Internet Is Literacy
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Non‐Native‐Speaker English Teachers
Background
Birth of the Non‐Native Speaker Movement
Reflecting on Achievements
Rise in Self‐Esteem
Surge in Academic Research and Publications on Non‐Native‐Speaker Issues
Leadership in TESOL
References
Online Resources
O Online Psycholinguistic Methods in Second Language Acquisition Research
Introduction
Word Monitoring
Cross‐Modal Priming
Self‐Paced Reading/Listening
Self‐Paced Listening With Picture Verification
Comparison Between the Tasks: Advantages and Disadvantages
Word Monitoring
Cross‐Modal Priming
Self‐Paced Reading/Listening
Self‐Paced Listening With Picture Verification
Eye‐Tracking and Its Use in Psycholinguistic Research
References
Suggested Readings
Online Resources. Commercial Software
Free Software for Technically Competent Users
Note
Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie
References
Suggested Readings
P Paired and Group Oral Assessment
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Pattern Grammar
Introduction
Origins
The COBUILD Publications
Applications of Pattern Grammar
Pattern Grammar and Language Theory
References
Phonetics and Phonology: Historical Overview
Terminology
Pre‐19th‐Century Phonetics
Phonetics and Phonology in the 19th Century
Phonetics and Phonology in the 20th Century
Instrumental Phonetics
The International Phonetic Association and Alphabet
SIL International
Phonology
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Politeness
References
Suggested Readings
Positivism and Postpositivism
A Discipline of Design
Historically Variable Modes of Applied Linguistics
Linguistic Conceptions of Applied Linguistics
The Grip of Linguistics Is Loosened
A Fourth and Fifth Tradition of Doing Applied Linguistics
Political and Social Considerations Come Into Play
Beyond Postmodernism: An Emergent New Paradigm
The Coherence of the Field
References
Suggested Readings
Poststructuralism
Two Critical Incidents
Poststructuralist Theories of Language, Identity, and Investment
Poststructuralist Theory and Classroom Practice
Points of Contention and Sites of Innovation
References
Pragmatic Markers
Introduction: On the Nature of Pragmatic Markers
The Structure of Pragmatic Markers
Do Pragmatic Markers Have a Meaning?
Pragmatic Markers, General Extenders, and Second Language Acquisition
References
Pragmatics of Asynchronous Computer‐Mediated Communication
Medium‐Specific Features of ACMD
The Variation in Pragmatic Features in ACMC Contexts
Pragmatic Features of ACMC in L2 Learning Contexts
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Pragmatics of Lingua Franca Interaction
What Is a Lingua Franca?
Pragmatics and Discourse‐Related Studies of ELF: Some Research Findings
Recourse to L1: Pragmatic Transfer and Code Switching
Accommodation: Re‐Presenting Information
Solidarity and Consensus via Co‐Construction of Utterances
Reinterpretation of Discourse Markers You Know, I Think, I Don't Think, I Mean, Yes, So
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Pragmatics Research Methods
Observational Data Collection Procedures
Elicited Data Collection Procedures
Experimental Collection Procedures
Data Analysis
References
Suggested Readings
Pragmatic Transfer
Acknowledgment
References
Suggested Readings
Pronunciation Assessment
Introduction
Purposes of Assessing Pronunciation
Methods of Pronunciation Assessment
Challenges in Defining the Construct
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Pronunciation Teaching Methods and Techniques
Understanding the Basic Features of Pronunciation in English
Thought Groups
Intonation
Prominence
Rhythm
Word Stress
Connected Speech
Consonant and Vowel Sounds
Setting Realistic Goals for Instruction
Planning Instruction
Techniques, Tools, and Technology
References
Suggested Readings
Q Qualitative Corpus Analysis
Definition and Philosophy
Evolution of Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches to Corpus Analysis
Methodological Foundations
Corpus Design
Corpus Markup and Annotation
Data Retrieval
Data Interpretation
Practical Applications
Conclusions
References
Suggested Readings
Qualitative Research on Information and Communication Technology
Current Areas of Inquiry in ICT Research
Skills for Reading, Consuming, and Producing Information
Factors that Impact School‐Wide ICT Initiatives
Affordances of Network‐Based Interactions
Considerations of Qualitative Methods in ICT Settings
New Demands in Qualitative Research in ICT
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Qualitative Sociolinguistics Research
Formulating Qualitative Sociolinguistic Research
Traditions in Qualitative Sociolinguistics Research
Observing Language Use in Context
Issues and Tools in Data Collection
Recent Trends in Qualitative Sociolinguistic Research
References
Suggested Readings
Quantitative Methods
Introduction
Theoretical Assumptions
Formulating the Research Question
Following a Systematic Approach
Factorial Designs
Answering the Research Question
References
Suggested Readings
R Rating Oral Language
Rating Scales
Rater Training
Rating Processes
Rater Bias Patterns
Future Trends
References
Suggested Readings
Rating Scales and Rubrics in Language Assessment
Definition and Purpose
Types and Uses
Approaches to Rating Scale Development
Issues and Challenges
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Research Methods and Sociocultural Approaches in Second Language Acquisition
Zone of Proximal Development
Dynamic Assessment
Inner Speech
Private Speech
The Regulatory Function of Speech
Gesture
Social Situation of Development
Historical/Theoretical
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Rhetorical Discourse Analysis
Introduction
The Tradition of Rhetoric
Discourse Analysis
Rhetorical Discourse Analysis
Rhetorical Discourse Analysis in Rhetorical Criticism
Rhetorical Discourse Analysis and Rhetoric/Composition
Rhetorical Discourse Analysis in the Study of Language Structure and Use
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Role of Linguistic Human Rights in Language Policy and Planning
Introduction: Linguistic Human Rights as Part of Language Policy
Supplying or Denying Linguistic Human Rights: Good or Bad Language Policy Circles
Which Demands Are Justified? Is Speaking a Minority Language a Handicap to Get Rid Of?
When Can an LHR Approach “Deliver”?
References
Suggested Reading
Online Resource
Roles for Corrective Feedback in Second Language Instruction
Types of Corrective Feedback
Functions of Corrective Feedback
Effects of Corrective Feedback
Future Directions
References
Suggested Readings
Russification in the Soviet and Post‐Soviet Era
References
Suggested Reading
S Study Abroad
References
Suggested Readings
Online Resources
Systemic Functional Linguistics
Conceptualizing Text/Context Dynamics: Halliday's Three Metafunctions of Language
The Ideational Metafunction and Field Resources
The Interpersonal Metafunction and Tenor Resources
The Textual Metafunction and Mode Resources
References
Suggested Readings
T Task‐Based Language Assessment
Approaches to TBLA
Current Applications of TBLA
Issues in TBLA
Validity and Authenticity
Construct Definition and Rating
Practicality
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Online Resources
Note
Task‐Based Learning: Cognitive Underpinnings
Cognitive Processes in Task‐Based Learning
Design Characteristics Affecting the Cognitive Processing Demands of Tasks
Planning Time
Single/Dual Tasks
Intentional Reasoning
Spatial Reasoning
Here‐and‐Now/There‐and‐Then
Effects of Cumulative Increases in the Cognitive Demands of Tasks
Output
Uptake
Memory
Automaticity
Aptitudes
References
Suggested Readings
Teacher Education for Multilingual Education
References
Suggested Readings
Teaching Culture and Intercultural Competence
What Is Culture?
Teaching Culture: Modernist Perspectives
Big C Culture
Little C Culture
Intercultural Competence
Teaching Culture: Postmodernist Perspectives
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Teaching Reading: Foundations and Practices
Research on Reading with Implications for Instruction
Emphases for Reading Instruction. Promote Word‐Recognition Skills
Build a Large Recognition Vocabulary
Guide Comprehension‐Skill Development
Build Discourse‐Structure Awareness
Develop Strategic Reading
Promote Reading Fluency
Engage Students in Extensive Reading
Promote Motivation for Reading
Integrate Content Learning and Reading
Concluding Comments
References
Suggested Reading
Teaching Speaking
Speaking Under Time Pressure
What to Teach?
How to Teach?
Activities
Role of the Teacher
Teaching Speaking and Theories of SLA
References
Suggested Readings
Teaching Vocabulary
Which Words Should Be Learned?
What Are the Vocabulary Learning Goals?
How Will Vocabulary Be Learned in the Course?
How Will Vocabulary Learning Be Assessed?
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Theses and Dissertations in English for Specific Purposes
References
Suggested Readings
Third Language Acquisition
The Scope of Third Language Acquisition
Diversity of Third Language Acquisition
Main Trends in Third Language Acquisition Research
Final Remarks
References
Suggested Readings
Translanguaging
Introduction
Translanguaging and Language Theory
Translanguaging in Education
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Translation Theory
General Considerations About Theory
Theoretical Principles Currently Accepted in Translation Studies
Conclusions Implied by These Theoretical Principles
Difficulties in Formulating Translation Theory
References
U Uses of Language Assessments
Introduction
Classification of Test Uses
Decisions About Individuals
Decisions about Programs and Research
Test Use and Test Validity
Consequences of Test Use
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Note
Using the First Language and Code Switching in Second Language Classrooms
References
Suggested Reading
V Validation of Language Assessments
The Consensus View of Validation
Major Approaches to Validation in Language Assessment
Use‐Specific Validation Frameworks
Prevailing Concerns in Validation Research
References
Varieties of English in Asia
References
Suggested Readings
Vocabulary and Language for Specific Purposes
Investigating Vocabulary and Language for Specific Purposes
Teaching and Learning Vocabulary and Language for Specialized Purposes
References
Suggested Readings
Online Resources
Vocabulary Learning Strategies
What VLS Do Students Use?
Are VLS Useful?
Person, Task, Context, and Strategies
Learners and VLS
The Vocabulary Learning Task and VLS
Learning Context
Conclusions
References
Suggested Readings
Vygotsky and Second Language Acquisition
Meaning in the Internal Thinking/Languaging System
Methodological Approach
Vygotsky and Second Language Acquisition and Development
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Note
W Washback in Language Assessment
References
Suggested Readings
World Englishes and Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
TESOL in World Englishes: Early Years
World Englishes in TESOL: Early Years
World Englishes and TESOL in the 21st Century
Conclusion
References
Suggested Readings
Writing and Language for Specific Purposes
Writing Needs Across LSP Domains
Research in Writing and LSP
Pedagogy in Writing and LSP
References
Suggested Readings
Index
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