Оглавление
Chia-shu Lin. Dental Neuroimaging
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Dental Neuroimaging. The Role of the Brain in Oral Functions
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Boxes
List of Abbreviations
Preface
Introduction to Students and Instructors
Acknowledgements
About the Companion Website
1 Introduction to Neuroimaging and the Brain–Stomatognathic Axis
1.1 Why Do Dentists Need to Understand the Brain? 1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 The ‘Old Alliance’ Between Dentistry and Brain Science
1.1.3 Dental Education: The Role of Neuroscience and the Brain
1.1.3.1 The Tradition of ‘Dentists as Surgeons’
1.1.3.2 Brain and Neuroscience: Is It Neglected in Dental School?
1.1.4 The ‘New Engagement’: Modern Cross‐Disciplinary Research of Dentistry and Brain Science
1.1.5 Summary
1.2 What Is Neuroimaging? 1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 What Is the Role of Neuroimaging Research in Dentistry. 1.2.2.1 Trends of Research Publications in Dental Neuroimaging Research
1.2.2.2 The ‘Landmark Discoveries or Concepts’: Past and Future
1.2.3 Methods of Neuroimaging
1.2.3.1 Invasive Methods of Neuroimaging
1.2.3.2 Non‐invasive Methods – Different Focuses of Brain Features
1.2.3.3 Non‐invasive Methods – Different Sources of Brain Signals
1.2.4 Structural MRI Methods
1.2.4.1 T 1‐Weighted Structural MRI
1.2.4.2 Diffusion MRI
1.2.5 Functional MRI Methods
1.2.5.1 Blood‐Oxygen‐Level‐Dependent fMRI
1.2.5.2 Perfusion MRI – Arterial Spinning Labelling
1.2.6 General Considerations of the Limitations of Neuroimaging Methods
1.2.7 Summary
1.3 How Does Neuroimaging Contribute to Clinical Practice? 1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Links Between Neuroimaging and Key Issues of Oral Neuroscience
1.3.3 Links Between Neuroimaging and Clinical Disciplines of Dentistry
1.3.3.1 Prosthodontics
1.3.3.2 Periodontics
1.3.3.3 Orthodontics
1.3.4 Summary
1.4 The Brain–Stomatognathic Axis. 1.4.1 Introduction
1.4.2 Core Elements of the Brain–Stomatognathic Connection
1.4.2.1 Definition of the Functional Element
1.4.2.2 Definition of the Behavioural Scope
1.4.3 Theoretical Frameworks of the Brain–Stomatognathic Connection
1.4.3.1 The Oral‐to‐Behaviour Framework
1.4.3.2 Challenges from the OB Framework
1.4.3.3 The Oral‐Brain‐Behaviour Framework
1.4.4 The Brain–Stomatognathic Axis
1.4.5 How Can Neuroimaging Research Help Studying the Brain–Stomatognathic Connection?
1.4.5.1 Investigation of the OBB Framework
1.4.5.2 Investigation of the BSA Framework
1.4.6 Summary
Further Readings
References
2 Assessment of Human Brain Using MRI
2.1 Advantages and Limitations of Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain. 2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Advantages of MRI: A Historical View
2.1.2.1 MRI as an Ionizing Radiation‐free Imaging Method
2.1.2.2 Using Intrinsic Contrast for Functional Neuroimaging
Box 2.1 From the Brain to Behaviour – It Is All about the Energy!
2.1.3 Practical Advantages of the MRI Approach
2.1.4 Methodological Considerations of the MRI Approach
2.1.4.1 Temporal and Spatial Resolution of MRI
2.1.4.2 The Neurophysiological Nature of the BOLD Signal
2.1.5 The Limitations of Neuroimaging Research Based on MRI
2.1.5.1 Limitations in Spatial Resolution
2.1.5.2 Limitations in Temporal Resolution
2.1.5.3 Limitations of Detecting the Neural Events
2.1.6 Summary
2.2 Research of Task‐based Functional Activation. 2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 A Case Study: Brain Mechanisms of Mastication
2.2.2.1 What Is the ‘Task’ for Task‐based Functional Neuroimaging?
2.2.2.2 What Is the Baseline Condition Used for Control?
2.2.2.3 Practical Issues of a Task‐based Study
2.2.3 Methodological Issues of a Task‐based Study
2.2.3.1 Inter‐subject Variability – The Behavioural Aspects
2.2.3.2 Inter‐subject Variability – The Neuroimaging Aspects
2.2.4 Statistical Analysis of the Task‐based Research
2.2.4.1 Statistical Analysis at the Individual Level
2.2.4.2 Statistical Analysis at the Group Level
2.2.4.3 Statistical Thresholding for Imaging Results
2.2.5 Further Considerations Regarding Experimental Design and Analysis
2.2.5.1 Considerations About the ‘Subtraction’ Design and Pure Insertion
2.2.5.2 Other Common Strategies of fMRI Design
2.2.5.3 Considerations on the Statistical Threshold of Imaging Results
2.2.6 Summary
2.3 Research of Structural Features of the Brain. 2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Biological Significance of Structural Features
2.3.2.1 Biological Significance of Changes in Grey Matter
2.3.2.2 Biological Significance of Changes in White Matter
2.3.3 Voxel‐based Morphometry
2.3.3.1 What Does VBM Means?
2.3.3.2 Steps of VBM Analysis
2.3.3.3 Interpretation of the VBM Results
2.3.4 Surface‐based Approach
2.3.4.1 Assessment of Cortical Thickness
2.3.4.2 Segmentation of Brain Regions
2.3.4.3 Steps of Surface‐based Approach
2.3.5 Diffusion MRI
2.3.5.1 Assessment of Microstructure of White Matter
2.3.5.2 Tractography: Estimation of Anatomical Connectivity
2.3.6 Further Considerations of Structural MRI
2.3.7 Summary
2.4 Research of Brain Connectivity. 2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Segregation and Integration of Brain Functions
2.4.3 Functional Connectivity
2.4.3.1 Intrinsic Brain Functions
2.4.3.2 Spontaneous BOLD Activity and the Resting‐state fMRI
2.4.3.3 Research Approaches of Functional Connectivity
2.4.4 Structural Connectivity
2.4.4.1 Structural Connectivity Based on Tractography
2.4.4.2 Structural Covariance
2.4.5 Analysis of the Brain Connectivity Using a Network‐based Approach
2.4.5.1 The Definition of a Node
2.4.5.2 The Definition of a Link
2.4.6 Metrics for Assessing a Brain Network
2.4.6.1 Global Metrics
2.4.6.2 Local Metrics
2.4.7 Methodological Considerations of Brain Connectivity Research
2.4.7.1 Confounding Factors of Analyzing Functional Connectivity
2.4.7.2 Misinterpretation of Findings of Structural Connectivity
2.4.7.3 Methodological Variations of Graph‐based Analyses
2.4.8 Behavioural Considerations of Brain Connectivity Research
2.4.8.1 What Does ‘Resting‐state’ Function Connectivity Represent?
Box 2.5 From Research to Practice – There Is Something More Important Than an ‘Image’ for Neuroimaging
2.4.8.2 Are Functional and Structural Connectivity Well Coupled?
2.4.9 Summary
Further Readings
References
3 Assessment of Oral Functions
3.1 Assessment of Masticatory and Swallowing Performance. 3.1.1 Introduction
3.1.2 Functional Assessments for Masticatory Performance
3.1.2.1 Assessment of the Cutting Ability
3.1.2.2 Assessment of the Mixing Ability: The Two‐colour Chewing‐gum Test
3.1.2.3 Assessment of the Mixing Ability: The Colour‐changeable Chewing‐gum Test
3.1.3 Functional Assessments Related to Masticatory Performance
3.1.3.1 The Number of Chewing Cycles
3.1.3.2 Maximal Biting Force
3.1.3.3 Oral Stereognosis
3.1.4 Functional Assessments for Swallowing Performance
3.1.4.1 Water Swallowing Test
3.1.4.2 Repetitive Saliva Swallowing Test
3.1.5 Self‐report Assessments of Eating Experience
3.1.5.1 Masticatory Experience
3.1.5.2 Swallowing Experience
3.1.5.3 Consistency Between Functional and Questionnaire Assessments
3.1.6 Clinical Implications
3.1.6.1 Evaluation of Treatment Outcomes
3.1.6.2 Evaluation of the Association Between Oral and Systemic Factors
3.1.7 Summary
3.2 Assessment of Orofacial Pain and Somatosensory Experience. 3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Oral Assessment and Psychophysics
3.2.3 Quantifying Pain Using the Pain Scales
Box 3.1 From the Brain to Behaviour – Brain Mechanisms of Rating One's Feeling
3.2.3.1 Numerical Rating Scale
3.2.3.2 Visual Analogue Scale
3.2.3.3 Verbal Descriptor Scale
3.2.3.4 Comparison Between the Pain Scales
3.2.3.5 Pain Scales Based on Diagrams
3.2.3.6 Limitations and Challenges of Using Pain Scales
3.2.4 Quantitative Sensory Testing
3.2.4.1 Composition of the QST
3.2.4.2 Clinical Application of QST Methods
3.2.4.3 Practical Issues of Using the QST
3.2.5 Assessment of Emotional and Behavioural Experiences of Pain
3.2.5.1 Assessment of Emotional Experiences of Pain
3.2.5.2 Assessment of Behavioural Experiences of Pain
3.2.6 Experimental Paradigms of Neuroimaging and Pain/Somatosensory Experience
3.2.6.1 BOLD Signals Recorded Concurrently with Ratings of Stimulation
3.2.6.2 Separate (‘Off‐line’) Record of Brain Features and Ratings
3.2.7 Summary
3.3 Assessment of Cognitive Functions and Emotional Experience. 3.3.1 Introduction
3.3.2 Assessments for Screening the Risk of Cognitive Impairment
3.3.2.1 The Mini‐mental State Examination
3.3.2.2 The Montreal Cognitive Assessment
3.3.3 Assessments for Patients' Emotional Experience
3.3.3.1 Assessments Related to Anxiety
3.3.3.2 Assessments Related to Depressive Symptoms
3.3.4 Assessments for Pain‐related Cognitive–Affective Experience
3.3.4.1 The Fear of Pain Questionnaire‐III
3.3.4.2 The Pain Catastrophizing Scale
3.3.4.3 The Pain Vigilance and Awareness Questionnaire
3.3.4.4 Assessment of Emotional Experience of Sensory Testing
3.3.5 Clinical Considerations of the Assessment of Cognitive Functions and Emotional Experience
3.3.5.1 Collecting Baseline Mental Status of Dental Patients
3.3.5.2 Evaluation of Patients' Cognitive Abilities
3.3.6 Summary
Further Readings
References
4 Brain Mechanisms of Oral Motor Functions
4.1 Introduction of Brain Mechanisms of Motor Control. 4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Basic Concepts of Motor Functions
4.1.2.1 Motor Control
4.1.2.2 Motor Leaning: Fine‐tuning of the Sensorimotor Association
4.1.2.3 Motor Programmes
4.1.3 Cortical and Subcortical Regions Associated with Motor Control
4.1.3.1 Primary Motor Cortex (M1)
4.1.3.2 Premotor Cortex
4.1.3.3 Supplementary Motor Area
4.1.3.4 Basal Ganglia
4.1.3.5 Cerebellum
4.1.4 Brainstem
4.1.5 Summary
4.2 Brain Mechanisms of Human Mastication. 4.2.1 Introduction
4.2.2 Earlier Findings from Animal Research on Chewing Movement
4.2.2.1 Identification of the Role of the Cortical Masticatory Area
4.2.2.2 The Sensorimotor Circuitry of Mastication and Its Plasticity
4.2.3 Experimental Design of Neuroimaging of Mastication
4.2.4 Neuroimaging Findings of Brain Mechanisms of Mastication
4.2.4.1 The Sensorimotor Circuitry of Mastication
4.2.4.2 The Secondary Motor Area
4.2.4.3 The Prefrontal Cortex
4.2.4.4 Cerebellum
4.2.5 Synthesis of the Neuroimaging Evidence of Mastication
4.2.5.1 Investigating Cause–Effect Mechanisms of Mastication
Box 4.2 From Research to Practice – Better Brain, Better Chewing?
4.2.5.2 An Integrative Model of the Human Masticatory Process
4.2.5.3 Revisiting the Concept of the Human Masticatory Process
4.2.6 Summary
4.3 Brain Mechanisms of Human Swallowing. 4.3.1 Introduction
4.3.2 Earlier Findings from Animal and Clinical Research on Swallowing
4.3.3 Neuroimaging of Human Swallowing: Experimental Design
4.3.4 Neuroimaging Findings of Human Swallowing
4.3.4.1 Results from Imaging Meta‐analysis
4.3.4.2 Brain Mechanisms Associated with Motor Processing of Swallowing
4.3.4.3 Brain Mechanisms Associated with Sensory Processing of Swallowing
4.3.4.4 The Role of Brain Regions Other Than the Sensorimotor Cortex
4.3.5 Prominent Questions for Further Investigation
4.3.5.1 The Cognitive–Affective Processing in Swallowing
4.3.5.2 The Interaction Between Swallowing and Other Rhythmic Movements
4.3.5.3 Association Between the Perception of Food and Swallowing
4.3.6 Summary
4.4 Cognitive Processing and Motor Learning of Oromotor Movement. 4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 Sensorimotor Learning
4.4.2.1 Error‐Based Learning
4.4.2.2 Reinforcement Learning
4.4.2.3 Supervised vs. Unsupervised Learning
4.4.3 Sensorimotor Integration
4.4.3.1 The Role of the M1 and the S1 in Motor Control
4.4.3.2 Action Observation – The Mirror Neuron System
4.4.4 Sensorimotor Adaptation
4.4.4.1 Experimental Design for Studying Sensorimotor Adaptation
4.4.4.2 Brain Mechanisms of Sensorimotor Adaptation
4.4.5 Acquisition of Expert Skills
4.4.6 Summary
Further Readings
References
5 Brain Mechanisms of Oral Sensory Functions
5.1 Brain Mechanisms of Oral Somatosensory Processing. 5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.2 Oral Somatosensory Processing: A Hierarchical Model
5.1.3 Oral Somatosensation
5.1.3.1 Oral Mechanoreceptors
5.1.3.2 Mechanoreceptors of Teeth and Tongue
5.1.4 Oral Somatosensory Perception
5.1.5 Oral Somatosensory Representation: The Mouth Experience
5.1.5.1 From Body Image to ‘Oral Image’
5.1.5.2 Somaesthesis: The Feeling of the Mouth
5.1.6 Neuroimaging Research on Oral Somatosensory Processing
5.1.6.1 Brain Mechanisms of Oral Somatosensation
5.1.6.2 Brain Mechanisms of Oral Somatoperception
5.1.7 Clinical Implications
5.1.7.1 Sensory Feedback of Dental Implants
5.1.7.2 Occlusal Dysesthesia
5.1.7.3 Orofacial Perceptual Distortion
5.1.8 Summary
5.2 Brain Mechanisms of Gustation. 5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Brain Mechanisms of Gustation
5.2.2.1 Previous Findings from Animal Research
5.2.2.2 Meta‐analytical Findings from Human Neuroimaging Studies
5.2.3 Recent Neuroimaging Findings of Gustation
5.2.3.1 Brain Mechanisms Associated with Taste Stimuli
5.2.3.2 Brain Mechanisms Associated with the Affective–Motivational Experience of Taste
5.2.4 Neuroimaging Findings of Food Perception
5.2.5 Summary
5.3 Cognitive–Affective Issues of Oral Sensory Functions. 5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Perception
5.3.2.1 Bottom‐up and Top‐down Processing of Perception
5.3.2.2 Predictive Coding of Perception
Box 5.1 From Research to Practice – Why Is Orofacial Apparatus So Sensitive?
5.3.2.3 Brain Mechanisms Associated with Perceptual Prediction
5.3.3 Attention
5.3.3.1 Attention Control
5.3.3.2 Attention and Anticipation
5.3.3.3 Brain Mechanisms of Attentional Processing
5.3.4 Motivation and Emotion
5.3.4.1 Motivation and Reward Processing
5.3.4.2 Anxiety, Fear and Threat
5.3.5 Cognitive–Affective Factors of Oral Sensory Functions
5.3.5.1 Perceived Threat and Pain
5.3.5.2 Emotional Valence of Oral Somatosensory Stimulation
5.3.6 Summary
5.4 Brain Mechanisms of Multisensory Integration. 5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Basic Concepts of Multisensory Integration
5.4.3 Brain Mechanisms of Multisensory Integration
5.4.4 Research on Multisensory Integration in Oral Sensorimotor Functions
5.4.4.1 Multisensory Processing Related to Gustation
5.4.4.2 Multisensory Processing Related to Somatosensation
5.4.5 Proprioception and Pain
5.4.6 Future Directions of Oral Multisensory Research
5.4.7 Summary
Further Readings
References
6 Brain Mechanisms of Pain and Anxiety of Dental Patients
6.1 Brain Mechanisms Related to Pain. 6.1.1 Introduction
6.1.2 From the Neuromatrix of Pain to ‘Pain Matrix’
6.1.3 Brain Mechanisms Related to Acute Pain
6.1.4 Cognitive–Affective Factors Related to Acute Pain
6.1.5 Brain Mechanisms Related to Chronic Pain
6.1.6 Cognitive–Affective Factors Related to Chronic Pain
6.1.6.1 Modulation and Chronification of Pain
6.1.6.2 Chronic Pain and Reward Processing
6.1.7 Imaging/Neurological Pain Signatures
Box 6.1 From Research to Practice – Revision of the Definition of Chronic Pain by Neuroimaging Evidence
6.1.8 Summary
6.2 Chronic Pain, Neural Plasticity and Central Sensitization. 6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Definition and Classification of Chronic Pain
6.2.3 Chronic Pain and Neural Plasticity
6.2.3.1 Neural Plasticity
6.2.3.2 Brain Mechanisms of Plasticity
6.2.4 Sensitization
6.2.4.1 Peripheral vs. Central Sensitization
6.2.4.2 Allodynia
6.2.4.3 Hyperalgesia
6.2.5 Neuroimaging Research on Central Sensitization
6.2.5.1 Research on Sensitization Induced by Experimental Methods
6.2.5.2 Research on Patients with Chronic Pain
6.2.6 Summary
6.3 Brain Mechanisms of Chronic Orofacial Pain. 6.3.1 Introduction
6.3.2 TMD‐related Pain
6.3.2.1 Findings from Meta‐analytic Studies
6.3.2.2 Recent Neuroimaging Findings of TMD‐related Pain
6.3.3 Trigeminal Neuropathic Pain and Trigeminal Neuralgia
6.3.3.1 Structural Features of Trigeminal Neuropathic Pain or Trigeminal Neuralgia
6.3.3.2 Functional Features of Trigeminal Neuropathic Pain or Trigeminal Neuralgia
6.3.3.3 Burning Mouth Syndrome
6.3.4 Neurochemical Features Related to Chronic Orofacial Pain
6.3.5 Applications of Neuroimaging on Chronic Orofacial Pain
6.3.5.1 Brain Mechanisms Between Acute and Chronic Pain
6.3.5.2 Brain Mechanisms Related to Individual Differences in Chronic Orofacial Pain
6.3.6 Summary
6.4 Brain Mechanisms of Dental Fear and Anxiety. 6.4.1 Introduction
6.4.2 Fear, Anxiety and Phobia
6.4.3 Brain Mechanisms of Dental Fear and Anxiety
6.4.3.1 Research on Symptom‐Provoking Tasks
6.4.3.2 Research on Pain and Conditioning Tasks
6.4.4 Brain Mechanisms of Dental Phobia
6.4.4.1 Functional Features of Dental Phobia
6.4.4.2 Structural Features of Dental Phobia
6.4.5 Factors Associated with Dental Fear and Anxiety
6.4.6 Brain Mechanisms Associated with Anxiety Management
6.4.7 Future Directions of Neuroimaging of Dental Fear/Anxiety Research
6.4.7.1 Investigating the Cognitive and Emotional Profiles of Subjects
6.4.7.2 Improving the Ecological Validity of Experimental Setting
6.4.8 Summary
Further Readings
References
7 Age‐related Differences in the Brain–Stomatognathic Axis. 7.1 Age‐related Differences in Brain Mechanisms. 7.1.1 Introduction
7.1.2 Age‐related Differences in Brain Structure
7.1.2.1 Cortical Morphology
7.1.2.2 White Matter Morphometrics
7.1.2.3 Structural Connectivity
7.1.2.4 Cerebellum
7.1.2.5 Cerebrospinal Fluid
7.1.3 Age‐related Differences in Intrinsic Functional Connectivity
7.1.3.1 Inter‐regional Resting‐stated Functional Connectivity
7.1.3.2 Whole‐brain Functional Connectome
7.1.4 Clinical Implications
7.1.5 Methodological Considerations
7.1.6 Summary
7.2 Age‐related Changes in Oral Sensorimotor Functions. 7.2.1 Introduction
7.2.2 General Health Conditions Associated with Aging
7.2.2.1 General Issues of Age‐related Effect on Physical and Mental Conditions
7.2.2.2 Relationship Between Aging and Diseases
7.2.3 The Age‐related Differences in the Stomatognathic System
7.2.3.1 Tooth Loss
7.2.3.2 Orofacial Muscles
7.2.3.3 Salivary Secretion
7.2.4 Age‐related Changes in Oral Sensory Functions
7.2.4.1 Somatosensory Functions
7.2.4.2 Pain
7.2.4.3 Gustation
7.2.5 Age‐related Changes in Masticatory Functions
7.2.5.1 The Role of Dentition
7.2.5.2 The Roles of Masticatory Muscles, Sensory Feedback and Saliva Secretion
7.2.5.3 The Role of Motor Control and Behavioural Adaptation
7.2.6 Swallowing Functions
7.2.7 Summary
7.3 Association Between the Brain and Oral Functions in Older People. 7.3.1 Introduction
7.3.2 Association Between Mastication and the Brain in Older People
7.3.2.1 Aging and the Brain Mechanisms of Mastication
7.3.2.2 Recent Neuroimaging Findings of Aging and Mastication
7.3.3 Association Between Swallowing and the Brain in Older People
7.3.3.1 Aging and the Brain Mechanisms of Swallowing
7.3.3.2 Recent Neuroimaging Findings of Aging and Swallowing
7.3.4 Considerations of Research Design and Future Directions
7.3.4.1 The Definition and Selection of the Study Group
7.3.4.2 The Design for Functional Assessment
7.3.5 Summary
7.4 Association Between Oral Conditions and Neurodegenerative Disorders. 7.4.1 Introduction
7.4.2 The Oral–Cognitive Association
7.4.2.1 Clinical Findings of Oral–Cognitive Associations
7.4.2.2 Revisiting Oral–Cognitive Associations
7.4.3 The Role of the Brain in the Oral–Cognitive Associations
7.4.3.1 An Emphasis on the Brain's Role in Behaviour Adaptation
Box 7.1 From the Brain to Behaviour – Sensorimotor Adaptation
7.4.3.2 An Emphasis on Brain Pathologies Derived from Oral Factors
7.4.3.3 An Emphasis on a Common Factor That Influences Both Cognitive and Oral Conditions
7.4.4 Animal Research on Neurodegenerative Disorders and Oral Functions
7.4.5 Neuroimaging Findings of Brain Mechanisms of Alzheimer's Disease
Box 7.2 From the Brain to Behaviour – Executive Function of the Brain
7.4.6 Association Between Neurodegenerative Disorders and Oral Functions
7.4.6.1 Oral Functions and Cognitive Impairment
7.4.6.2 Oral Status and Other Neurodegenerative Disorders
7.4.7 Translational Research for Dental Patients with Neurodegenerative Disorders
7.4.7.1 Can We Predict the Status of Oral Health Based on Cognitive Status (and Vice Versa)?
7.4.7.2 Can We Confirm the Cause–Effect Relationship Between Oral and Cognitive Aspects?
7.4.7.3 Can We Improve Oral Health to Improve Cognitive Functions?
7.4.8 Summary
Further Readings
References
8 Brain Mechanisms of Adaptation of Oral Sensorimotor Functions. 8.1 Brain Plasticity and Adaptation. 8.1.1 Introduction
8.1.2 Neuroplasticity: Clarification of Misconception
8.1.2.1 Behavioural and Brain Plasticity
8.1.2.2 Misconceptions About Brain Plasticity
8.1.2.3 Recovery, Reorganization and Compensation
8.1.3 Neural Mechanisms of Plasticity
8.1.4 Neuroimaging as a Tool for Studying Brain Plasticity
8.1.4.1 Plasticity Identified by Structural Brain Features
8.1.4.2 Plasticity Identified by Functional Brain Features
8.1.5 Limitations of Neuroimaging Research on Neuroplasticity
8.1.5.1 Association Between Neuroimaging Features and Synaptic Mechanisms
8.1.5.2 Association Between Plasticity Induced by Training and Experience
8.1.6 Summary
8.2 Adaptation of Pain and Oral Sensory Functions. 8.2.1 Introduction
8.2.2 The Manifolds of Adaptation
8.2.2.1 Sensory Adaptation
8.2.2.2 Behavioural Adaptation
8.2.2.3 Structural vs. Functional Adaptation
8.2.3 Adaptation of Pain
8.2.3.1 Sensory Adaptation of Pain
8.2.3.2 Pain Adaptation at the Cognitive–Affective Level
8.2.3.3 Maladaptive Behaviour of Pain
8.2.4 Neuroimaging Research on Pain Adaptation
8.2.4.1 Sensory Adaptation of Pain
8.2.4.2 Cognitive Appraisal of Pain
8.2.5 Oral Sensory Adaptation and Brain Plasticity
8.2.5.1 Clinical Research on Oral Sensory Adaptation
8.2.5.2 Animal Research on Brain Plasticity of Orofacial Sensorimotor Functions
8.2.5.3 Neuroimaging Research on Brain Mechanisms of Oral Sensory Adaptation
8.2.6 Summary
8.3 Functional Adaptation of Mastication and Swallowing. 8.3.1 Introduction
8.3.2 Adaptation of Mastication and Swallowing
8.3.2.1 Adaptation by Modification of Food Intake
8.3.2.2 Adaptation of Masticatory Functions
8.3.2.3 Adaptation of Swallowing Functions
8.3.3 Pain, Adaptation and Mastication
8.3.4 Neuroimaging Findings of Adaptation of Mastication and Swallowing
8.3.4.1 Brain Mechanisms of Adaptation of Mastication
8.3.4.2 Brain Mechanisms of Adaptation of Swallowing
8.3.5 Summary
8.4 Brain Plasticity Associated with Oral Functional Training. 8.4.1 Introduction
8.4.2 Oral Approaches for Improving Oral Functions in Older People
8.4.3 Oral Approaches for Functional Adaptation in Dysphagia
8.4.4 Neuroimaging Research on Brain Plasticity of Improving Oral Functions
8.4.4.1 The Effect of Oral Approaches on Swallowing
8.4.4.2 The Effect of Brain Stimulation on Swallowing
8.4.5 Summary
Further Readings
References
9 A Synthesis Between Neuroimaging and Oral Healthcare. 9.1 Assessment of Individual Differences in Brain–Stomatognathic Axis. 9.1.1 Introduction
9.1.2 What Does the BSIA Aim for?
9.1.2.1 Prediction of Long‐term Changes in Oral Functions
9.1.2.2 Classification of Patients with Different Risks of Oral Diseases
9.1.3 Components of the BSIA
9.1.4 How Does the BSIA Work? Some Practical Issues for Consideration
9.1.4.1 Integration of Assessment Outcomes
9.1.4.2 A Home‐based Assessment Based on Digital Technology
9.1.4.3 Application of Teledentistry
9.1.5 Research on the BSIA
9.1.6 Summary
9.2 Future Direction of Neuroimaging in Oral Neuroscience. 9.2.1 Introduction
9.2.2 Cross‐talk Between Neuroimaging and Animal Research
9.2.3 Artificial Intelligence
9.2.3.1 Machine‐learning‐based Assessment of Oral Structure and Function
9.2.3.2 Classification vs. Prediction
9.2.4 Summary
Further Readings
References
Index. a
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