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Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Understanding Clinical Papers
Preface to the First Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
SOME NOTES ON STATISTICAL SOFTWARE
WRITING PAPERS FOR CLINICAL JOURNALS
Preface to the Third Edition
Preface to the Fourth Edition
CHAPTER 1 Some Preliminaries
WHO WROTE THE PAPER?
IN WHAT SORT OF JOURNAL DOES THE PAPER APPEAR?
WHO (AND WHAT) IS ACKNOWLEDGED?
Note
CHAPTER 2 The Abstract and Introduction
THE ABSTRACT
THE INTRODUCTION
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER 3 The Aims and Objectives
HYPOTHESES
OBJECTIVES THAT ARE NOT HYPOTHESIS TESTING
STUDIES WITH UNCLEAR OBJECTIVES
CHAPTER 4 Descriptive Studies: Qualitative
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE STUDY
Theoretical Approaches
Practical Data Gathering
CHAPTER 5 Descriptive Studies: Quantitative
CASE REPORTS
CASE SERIES
CROSS‐SECTIONAL STUDIES
LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
CHAPTER 6 Analytic Studies
ECOLOGICAL STUDIES
CROSS‐SECTIONAL, TWO‐GROUP STUDIES
CASE–CONTROL STUDIES
COHORT ANALYTIC STUDIES
Prospective and Retrospective Cohort Designs
VARIATIONS IN CASE–CONTROL AND COHORT DESIGNS
COMPARING AND CONTRASTING CASE–CONTROL AND COHORT STUDIES
‘STROBE' GUIDELINES
CHAPTER 7 Intervention Studies
TRIALS
RANDOM ALLOCATION AND ITS CONCEALMENT
CONSENT AND RANDOMIZATION IN TRIALS
PLACEBOS OR TREATMENT‐AS‐USUAL
PRAGMATIC AND EXPLANATORY TRIALS
INTENTION‐TO‐TREAT ANALYSIS
FEASIBILITY AND PILOT STUDIES
CLUSTER RANDOMIZED TRIALS
ADAPTIVE TRIAL DESIGN
CONSORT GUIDELINES
CHAPTER 8 Mixed Methods Research
CHAPTER 9 Studies of Complex Interventions
CHAPTER 10 Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
PUBLICATION AND OTHER BIASES
THE FUNNEL PLOT
HETEROGENEITY
COMBINING THE STUDIES
‘PRISMA' GUIDELINES
SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF NON‐TRIALS RESEARCH
CHAPTER 11. Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies
CHAPTER 12. The Research Setting
CHAPTER 13 Populations and Samples in Quantitative Research
SAMPLING
SAMPLE SIZE AND POWER
CHAPTER 14 Research Using Already‐Collected Data
SOURCES OF ALREADY‐COLLECTED DATA
PROBLEMS WITH ALREADY‐COLLECTED DATA
MISSING DATA IN ALREADY‐COLLECTED DATASETS
CONFOUNDING IN ALREADY‐COLLECTED DATA
CHAPTER 15 The Sample in Qualitative Research
THE NATURE OF SAMPLES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
SAMPLE SIZE IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
SAMPLING FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
CHAPTER 16. Identifying and Defining Cases
CHAPTER 17 Controls and Comparisons
CHAPTER 18 Identifying the Characteristics of Quantitative Data
TYPES OF VARIABLE – TYPES OF DATA
IDENTIFYING DATA TYPE
SHAPES OF DISTRIBUTIONS
Note
CHAPTER 19 Summarizing the Characteristics of Quantitative Data
SUMMARY MEASURES OF LOCATION
SUMMARY MEASURES OF SPREAD
Note
CHAPTER 20 Identifying and Summarising the Characteristics of Qualitative Data
CHAPTER 21 Measuring the Characteristics of Participants: Quantitative
INFORMATION AND MEASUREMENT BIAS
BIAS ARISING FROM MISSING VALUES
CHAPTER 22. Measuring the Characteristics of Participants: Qualitative
CHAPTER 23 Diagnostic Tests: Measuring the Characteristics of Measures
THE MEASURES
THE SENSITIVITY VERSUS SPECIFICITY TRADE‐OFF – THE RECEIVER OPERATING CHARACTERISTIC (ROC) CURVE
Note
CHAPTER 24 Measurement Scales
THE MEASUREMENT PROBLEM
WHAT ARE MEASUREMENT SCALES?
WHEN AUTHORS USE DATA FROM MEASUREMENT SCALES
DEVELOPMENT OF A NEW MEASUREMENT SCALE
SCALE CONSTRUCTION
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF SCALES
Scale Validity
Face Validity
Content Validity
Criterion and Concurrent Validity
Construct Validity
Reliability
Internal Consistency – Cronbach's Alpha (α)
Stability
Phase 6 – Test–Retest Stability
Responsiveness – Sensitivity to Change
The Use of Receiver Operating Characteristic Curves with Scale Scores
CHAPTER 25 Exploring and Explaining: Topic Guides
CHAPTER 26 Fractions, Proportions, and Rates
CHAPTER 27 Risks and Odds
RISK
ODDS
CHAPTER 28 Ratios of Risks and Odds. RISK RATIO
ODDS RATIO
CLINICAL TRIALS AND ‘NUMBERS NEEDED TO TREAT'
CHAPTER 29 Confidence Intervals for Means, Proportions, and Medians
WHAT IS A CONFIDENCE INTERVAL?
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS FOR DIFFERENCES IN TWO MEANS
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS AND CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS FOR DIFFERENCES IN TWO PERCENTAGES
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS FOR DIFFERENCES IN TWO MEDIANS
Notes
CHAPTER 30 Confidence Intervals for Ratios
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS FOR ODDS RATIOS
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS FOR RISK RATIOS
CONFIDENCE INTERVALS FOR HAZARD RATIOS
CHAPTER 31 Testing Hypotheses – The p‐value
ASSESSING THE EVIDENCE AGAINST THE HYPOTHESIS – THE P‐VALUE
MAKING THE WRONG DECISION – TYPES OF ERROR
False Positives (or Type I Errors)
Multiple Comparisons
False Negatives (or Type II Errors)
HYPOTHESIS TESTS AND CONFIDENCE INTERVALS COMPARED
TWO‐TAILED VERSUS ONE‐TAILED TESTS
MATCHED VERSUS INDEPENDENT GROUPS
The χ2 Test
The χ2 Test with Odds Ratios, Risk Ratios, etc
The χ2 Test for Trend
The Two‐Sample t‐Test. The Two‐Sample t‐Test with Independent Samples
The Matched‐Pairs t‐Test
TRANSFORMING DATA
FINALLY
Notes
CHAPTER 32 Measuring Association
MEASURING ASSOCIATION. The Scatterplot
THE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
Note
CHAPTER 33 Measuring Agreement
MEASURING AGREEMENT WITH NOMINAL DATA
INTERPRETING κ
AGREEMENT WITH ORDINAL DATA: WEIGHTED κ
MEASURING AGREEMENT WITH METRIC DATA
Notes
CHAPTER 34 Linear Regression. WHY REGRESSION?
LINEAR REGRESSION
ESTIMATING THE REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS – ORDINARY LEAST SQUARES ESTIMATION
MEASURING THE STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REGRESSION PARAMETERS
MODEL‐BUILDING AND VARIABLE SELECTION
AUTOMATED (OR STEPWISE) VARIABLE SELECTION
MANUAL VARIABLE SELECTION METHODS
INTERPRETING THE REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS
GOODNESS‐OF‐FIT
DUMMY (OR DESIGN) VARIABLES
TESTING THE ASSUMPTIONS OF THE LINEAR REGRESSION MODEL
EFFECT MODIFICATION AND INTERACTION
SUMMARY
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
MULTIVARIATE STATISTICS
Notes
CHAPTER 35 Logistic Regression
THE LOGISTIC REGRESSION MODEL
VARIABLE SELECTION AND MODEL ESTIMATION
INTERPRETATION AND STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE REGRESSION COEFFICIENTS
DUMMY VARIABLES
GOODNESS‐OF‐FIT
EFFECT MODIFICATION – INTERACTION
MODEL DIAGNOSTICS
Note
CHAPTER 36 Poisson Regression. PREAMBLE
POISSON REGRESSION
ESTIMATING THE REGRESSIN PARAMETERS
INTERPRETING THE ESTIMATED COEFFICIENTS OF A POISSON REGRESSION, b1, b2, etc.3
WHEN THE OUTCOME VARIABLE Y IS A COUNT
WHEN THE OUTCOME VARIABLE IS A RATE
CHOOSING THE COVARIATES – MODEL‐BUILDING
GOODNESS‐OF‐FIT
ZERO‐INFLATED POISSON REGRESSION
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL REGRESSION
ZERO‐INFLATED NEGATIVE BINOMIAL REGRESSION (ZNIB)
Notes
CHAPTER 37 Measuring Survival
THE KAPLAN–MEIER METHOD – MEDIAN SURVIVAL TIME
THE LOG‐RANK TEST
LOG‐RANK TEST FOR TREND
THE PROPORTIONAL HAZARDS (OR COX'S) REGRESSION MODEL
Checking the Proportional Hazards Assumption
Notes
CHAPTER 38. Analysing Qualitative Data
CHAPTER 39 Results in Text and Tables. RAW RESULTS AND COOKED FINDINGS
INTERESTING FINDINGS
LEGENDS AND BRACKETS
DASHES
CHAPTER 40 Results in Pictures. WHY USE CHARTS AND FIGURES?
SHAPE OF DISTRIBUTIONS
CHAPTER 41 The Discussion and Conclusions
References
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
Fourth Edition
David Bowers
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Primarily, this book should be of interest to the following individuals:
In addition, this book should appeal to individuals who although are not themselves clinicians but nonetheless find themselves in a clinical setting, and need some understanding of what the published clinical research in their area means. These people would include:
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