English for Academic Purposes

Оглавление

Edward de Chazal. English for Academic Purposes

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

INTRODUCTION

1 THE FIELD OF EAP

EAP as a research-informed practice

Contextualization

The emergence of EAP

ESP and EAP

Myths and realities in EAP

Differences between EAP and general ELT

Critical thinking

Curriculum and syllabus

Topics and vocabulary

Texts

Assessments, tests, and examinations

Global reach

Teaching and learning

The focus of EAP

Similarities between EAP and general ELT

EAP and other specialized English contexts

Influences on EAP

General English Language Teaching (ELT)

Register analysis

Study skills

Genre analysis

Systemic functional linguistics

American second-language composition

Critical EAP

Academic literacies

Writing in the disciplines

Other influences

Influences on EAP: divergence or reconciliation?

EAP as an emerging global phenomenon

Conclusion

Further reading

2 TEACHING AND LEARNING

EAP students as resources of knowledge and experience

EAP students and teachers

Defining the teaching and learning context

Pre-sessional and in-sessional programmes

Issues in EAP teaching and learning

General–specific

Global–local

Characteristics of core teaching and learning contexts

Three shocks: culture, language, and academic

Academic honesty and plagiarism

Originality

Other aspects of teaching and learning

Specialist EAP teaching contexts

Academic staff in the disciplines

Secondary EAP

Teacher competences: the BALEAP competency framework

1 Academic contexts

2 Disciplinary differences

3 Academic discourse

4 Personal learning, development, and autonomy

5 Student needs

6 Student critical thinking

7 Student autonomy

8 Syllabus and programme development

9 Text processing and text production

10 Teaching practices

11 Assessment practices

Gaining confidence and competence

Principles of teaching and learning

EAP practitioners

Conclusion

Further reading

3 TEXTS

Academic texts as sources of knowledge and argument

Texts and contexts

Texts in EAP programmes

Texts as genres

Defining genre

Genre, audience, and purpose

Primary and secondary sources and non-academic genres

Student genres

Essential elements in texts

Texts and tasks

Cohesion in texts

Lexis

Cohesive noun phrases

Pronouns and determiners

Contextualizers

Interactors

Macro-text organizers

Focusers

Cohesion in EAP materials and assessments

Conclusion

Further reading

4 LANGUAGE

Academic language as agent of meaning

Academic language and the EAP teacher

Characteristics of academic language

Academic language in context

Vocabulary and grammar in academic texts

Lexical and function words

Analyzing word classes in academic texts: the case of nouns

Core, academic, and technical vocabulary

Form, function, and meaning

Words, phrases, and clause elements

Noun phrases and nominalization

EAP teacher competences

Analyzing complex noun phrases in an abstract

Analyzing complex noun phrases in a textbook

Noun + noun modification

Organizing vocabulary: academic word lists

Emerging academic word lists

Issues in academic word lists

Criteria for organizing academic vocabulary

Academic word lists in context

Vocabulary and grammar: academic language

The language of cause and effect

Academic style

Formal and informal style

Selection of language: criteria and emergence

Criteria for selecting vocabulary

Criteria for selecting grammar

Idioms and journalistic language

An emergent approach to language selection

Conclusion

Further reading

5 CRITICAL THINKING

Critical thinker as reflector and challenger

The nature of knowledge and the scientific method

Bloom’s taxonomy

Essential elements and critical thinking

Text management functions and essential elements

Stages in producing essential elements

A taxonomy of essential elements and critical thinking

Essential elements in language reference books

Defining the scope of critical thinking

Tasks, characteristics, and intelligences in critical thinking

Conditions and implications for critical thinking

Definitions of critical thinking

Critical thinking and critical EAP

Criticality: evaluation, stance, and voice

Evaluation

Stance

Voice

Criticality

The language of critical thinking

Evaluative language

Hedging

Critical thinking in practice

Planned and scaffolded approaches to critical thinking

An unplanned ‘critical thinking moment’

Asking critical questions

Communicating knowledge and ideas

Conclusion

Further reading

6 READING

Academic reader as processor and evaluator

Theories in reading: top-down and bottom-up

Processes in academic reading

Purposes in reading

Challenges in reading

Analyzing reading challenges

Challenges facing students reading a sample text

Reading speed and reading load

The EAP reading context

Student awareness of academic reading

Level

Approaching and navigating texts

Navigating and positioning a text using publication details

Genre, audience, and purpose

Selecting a text and a text extract

A sample text

Context and essential elements

Perspective

Investigating meaning in texts

Meaning

Stance

Citation

Language

Critical thinking and evaluation

Personal response and reflection

Next steps and independence

Time constraints

Conclusion

Further reading

7 WRITING

Academic writer as architect of meaning

Argument

Concepts associated with argument

Characteristics of academic writing

Student writing

Genres in the disciplines

Processes in academic writing

Writing essays

Writing reports

Reporting and citation

Rationale for citations

Quotation, paraphrase, and summary

Critiquing sources to use in writing

Teaching and learning criticality in academic writing

The language of citation

Referencing systems

Citation, referencing, reporting, and referring to sources

Choosing tenses in citations

Approaches to teaching and learning academic writing

Functional approaches

Process approaches

Genre-based approaches

Critical literacy approaches

Academic literacies approaches

Teaching writing using multiple approaches

A student-centred approach to academic writing

Managing students’ writing

Managing a writing project

Integrating writing with other skills

Overcoming challenges in writing

Writing with the students

Writing culture

Conclusion

Further reading

8 LISTENING

Academic listener as interpreter and recorder

The cyclical, integrated, and multimodal nature of listening

Listening genres and the role of the academic listener

Challenges in listening

Analyzing the challenges in a lecture extract

Skills and competencies in academic listening

The BALEAP ‘can-do’ framework

Listening resources

Lecture resources

Developing listening skills and competencies

Developing independent listening

Conclusion

Further reading

9 SPEAKING

Academic speaker as reporter and persuader

The role of speaking in academic contexts

Speaking opportunities in academic contexts

Designing the speaking component in EAP programmes

Student competencies in speaking

Challenges in speaking

Seminars and discussions

Evaluating speaking competence

Participating in seminars

Giving presentations

Content and delivery in presentations

Formulating a presentation skills syllabus

Stages in a presentation

Evaluating and assessing presentations

Poster presentations

Other speaking contexts

Conclusion

Further reading

10 MATERIALS

EAP materials as objective-driven tasks leading to independence

A needs-driven approach to writing EAP materials

Curriculum, syllabus, and schemes of work

Approaches in EAP programmes and materials

Situating materials in theory and practice

Exam-focused versus independent

Discrete versus integrated

Directed versus autonomous

Corpus-driven versus emergent

Functional versus analytical

Synthetic versus analytic

Influences, issues, and approaches

Teaching versus test-based materials

A responsive approach

Writing materials

Authenticity

Using authentic texts in EAP materials

Formulating learning objectives

Formulating tasks

Task types

Challenges in writing materials

Using published materials

Evaluating EAP materials

Conclusion

Further reading

11 ASSESSMENT

Assessments as tools to determine academic progression

Types and purposes of assessments

Assessment strategies

Issues in test construction

Validity and reliability

Direct and indirect tests

Objectivity and subjectivity in testing

Discrete and integrated tests

Norm-referencing and criterion-referencing

Assessments within EAP programmes

Developing assessment criteria

Writing low-stakes EAP tests

Influences of academic English tests

Perceptions and practicalities of academic English tests

Rationales and criticisms of international tests

The impact of international academic English tests

Profiles of international tests of academic English

IELTS

TOEFL

PTE

Academic skills and criticality in international tests

Test formats, scoring systems, and descriptors

A comparison of test scores and descriptors

IELTS bands

Interpreting test scores

Issues and controversies on setting entry requirements

Conclusion

Further reading

12 TECHNOLOGIES. Aisha Walker

Technologies as resources for communication and learning

21st-century learning contexts

Using digital resources

Library and digital resources

Digital books

Grey literature

Student work

Plagiarism and Turnitin

Presentation tools

Digital content in students’ work

Social networking and digital footprints

MOOCs

Mobile learning (m-learning)

Technologies as resources for teaching EAP skills

Learning management systems

Text handling and citation management

Word clouds

Wikis and real-time collaborative writing

iTunesU and YouTubeEDU

Academic discussions: Wikipedia and academic blogs

Text chat and virtual classrooms

Mind-mapping

Quiz-making

Keeping up to date

Conclusion

Further reading

CONCLUSION

APPENDIX

GLOSSARY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Отрывок из книги

First of all, I would like to thank Aisha Walker of the University of Leeds for writing the final chapter, ‘Technologies’, and Liz Austin of the University of Essex for contributing greatly to Chapter 11, Assessment.

I would also like to thank the two readers: John Swales, Professor Emeritus of Linguistics at the University of Michigan, and Lindy Woodrow, Senior Lecturer in TESOL at the University of Sydney, for their extremely helpful and insightful responses to the manuscript.

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A further level of complexity lies in the extremely wide range of subjects which students may be aiming to study. Several broad groupings of disciplines may be identified, although these can be grouped differently depending on the institution and context:

These align to some extent with the faculty groupings of universities, although these can vary widely. Each of these broad groupings may be further divided; for example, engineering may include civil engineering, chemical engineering, computer engineering, geomatic engineering, and others, which as an engineer would be keen to point out, are very different from each other. The example of business can have a very large number of related but distinct subjects, any one of which may be what people mean when they talk about ‘business students’: business, management, finance, economics, human resources, logistics, international relations, development, sustainability, politics, government, marketing, training, corporate law, retail, accounting, public policy, gender, global issues, international politics, international business law, communications, organizational structures, social policy, business psychology.

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