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Eric Chassefiere. Physics of the Terrestrial Environment, Subtle Matter and Height of the Atmosphere
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Physics of the Terrestrial Environment, Subtle Matter and Height of the Atmosphere. Conceptions of the Atmosphere and the Nature of Air in the Age of Enlightenment
Introduction
1. Words Used to Describe the Atmosphere and Subtle Matter. 1.1. Introduction
1.2. Air and the atmosphere
1.3. Vapors and exhalations
1.4. Coarse and subtle matters
1.5. The triptych of heat, fire and light. 1.5.1. Heat
1.5.2. Fire
1.5.3. Light
1.6. Ether
1.7. Fundamental properties of air
2. Refractive Matter. 2.1. Introduction
2.2. State of knowledge in the 17th century. 2.2.1. Representations of the atmosphere in the mid-17th century
2.2.2. The atmosphere of mathematicians and refraction in the first half of the 17th century
2.2.3. Gravity and elasticity of atmospheric matter in the second half of the 17th century
2.3. Arguments for the introduction of a refractive matter other than air
2.3.1. Argument based on invalidation by the observation of the theory of refraction by vapors and exhalations
2.3.2. Argument based on the high values of horizontal refraction at high latitude
2.3.3. Argument based on the too large value of the horizontal refraction predicted by the barometric model
2.3.4. Argument based on the gap considered as too large between the refractive height and the heights determined by the other methods
2.3.5. Argument based on the judgment that the sine law implies an absurd consequence on the path of light rays
2.4. Discussion
2.4.1. Observers and refractive matter
2.4.2. Cartesians and refractive matter
2.4.3. Mathematicians and refractive matter
2.5. Conclusion
3. Solar Matter. 3.1. Introduction
3.2. State of knowledge of the Sun in the 17th century. 3.2.1. Sunspots and rotation of the Sun on its axis
3.2.2. Nature and origin of comets and their tails
3.2.3. Zodiacal light and solar atmosphere
3.2.4. The example of Hartsoeker’s model merging sunspots, comets and zodiacal light in a single representation
3.3. Solar matter and height of the atmosphere
3.3.1. Solar atmosphere and effect on the duration of twilight
3.3.2. Solar atmosphere and the Northern Lights
3.4. Conclusion
4. Magnetic Matter. 4.1. Introduction
4.2. Main concepts of magnetism in the 17th century. 4.2.1. Descartes’s magnet theory and Gassendi’s design
4.2.2. Knowledge of magnetism at the turn of the 18th century
4.3. The explanation of the aurora borealis by magnetic matter. 4.3.1. The aurora borealis of 1716 and the hypothesis of Edmond Halley
4.3.2. The consequences of Halley’s hypothesis
4.4. Magnetism in the second half of the 18th century
4.5. Conclusion
5. Electrical Matter. 5.1. Introduction
5.2. Highlighting the link between electricity and thunderstorm activity. 5.2.1. The first experimental advances
5.2.2. Characterization of the natural electricity of the atmosphere
5.3. Knowledge of the nature of electricity in the mid-18th century
5.4. Precursory work on fiery meteors
5.5. Explanation using electricity. 5.5.1. Early stages
5.5.2. Theories based on electricity
5.5.3. Controversies about the explanation by electricity
5.6. Elucidation of the origin of fiery meteors and falling stars
5.7. Conclusion
6. Subtle Air. 6.1. Introduction
6.2. Difference in mercury heights between different barometers
6.3. Suspension of water and mercury from the tops of inverted tubes
6.4. Gravity theories and the impulse system
6.5. Light barometers
6.6. Conclusion
7. Results and Theories on the Height of the Atmosphere in the 18th Century. 7.1. Introduction
7.2. Representation of the atmosphere inherited from previous centuries. 7.2.1. Representation of the atmosphere
7.2.2. The central question of the height of the atmosphere
7.3. Two major paradigms for the composition and vertical extension of the atmosphere in the 18th century. 7.3.1. A lower atmosphere heavily laden with vapors and exhalations
7.3.2. An upper atmosphere extended upwards, but how far up?
7.4. The three main inconsistencies between estimates of atmospheric height made by different methods. 7.4.1. First inconsistency: twilight duration and atmospheric refraction
7.4.2. Second inconsistency: atmospheric refraction and air pressure
7.4.3. Third inconsistency: air pressure and aurora borealis
7.5. Two other methods for estimating the height of the atmosphere. 7.5.1. Fiery meteors and falling stars
7.5.2. Projection of the Earth’s shadow during lunar eclipses
7.6. Conclusion
8. Atmospheres of Earthly Bodies. 8.1. Introduction
8.2. Porosity of bodies. 8.2.1. Boyle’s founding treaty
8.2.2. Musschenbroek’s theory inherited from Newton
8.2.3. Nollet’s experiments on porosity
8.3. Atmospheres of bodies. 8.3.1. The atmosphere of solid bodies according to Boyle
8.3.2. Mariotte’s aerial matter
8.3.3. Nollet’s distillation experiments
8.3.4. Atmospheres of liquid bodies and ice formation according to Perrault
8.3.5. Béraud’s atmosphere of electric and magnetic etheric matter
8.3.6. Marat’s igneous and luminous atmospheres. 8.3.6.1. Marat’s position on phlogistics
8.3.6.2. The precursors: Hooke, then Lavoisier
8.3.6.3. Results obtained by Marat
8.4. Conclusion
Conclusion
References
Index. A, B
C, D
E, F
G, H
I, J, K
L
M
N, O, P
S, T
V, W, Z
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