Оглавление
Frede Blaabjerg. Smart Grid and Enabling Technologies
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Smart Grid and Enabling Technologies
About the Author
Acknowledgments
Preface
List of Abbreviations
About the Companion Website
1 Smart Grid Architecture Overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Fundamentals of a Current Electric Power System
1.2.1 Electrical Power Generation
1.2.2 Electric Power Transmission
1.2.3 Electric Power Distribution
1.3 Limitations of the Traditional Power Grid
1.3.1 Lack of Circuit Capacity and Aging Assets
1.3.2 Operation Constraints
1.3.3 Self‐Healing Grid
1.3.4 Respond to National Initiatives
1.4 Smart Grid Definition
1.5 Smart Grid Elements
1.5.1 Distributed Generation
1.5.2 Energy Storage
1.5.3 Demand Response
1.5.4 Integrated Communications
1.5.4.1 Communication Networks
1.5.4.2 Power Line Communication (PLC)
1.5.5 Customer Engagement
1.5.6 Sensors and PMU Units
1.5.7 Smart Meters and Advanced Metering Infrastructure
1.6 Smart Grid Control
1.7 Smart Grid Characteristics
1.7.1 Flexibility
1.7.2 Improved Efficiency
1.7.3 Smart Transportation
1.7.4 Demand Response Support
1.7.5 Reliability and Power Quality
1.7.6 Market‐Enabling
1.8 Transformation from Traditional Grid to Smart Grid
1.8.1 The Necessity for Paradigm Shift to SG
1.8.2 Basic Stages of the Transformation to SG
1.9 Smart Grid Enabling Technologies
1.9.1 Electrification
1.9.2 Decentralization
1.9.3 Digitalization and Technologies
1.10 Actions for Shifting toward Smart Grid Paradigm
1.10.1 Stages for Grid Modernization
1.10.2 When a Grid Becomes Smart Grid
1.11 Highlights on Smart Grid Benefits
1.12 Smart Grid Challenges
1.12.1 Accessibility and Acceptability
1.12.2 Accountability
1.12.3 Controllability
1.12.4 Interoperability
1.12.5 Interchangeability
1.12.6 Maintainability
1.12.7 Optimality
1.12.8 Security
1.12.9 Upgradability
1.13 Smart Grid Cost
1.14 Organization of the Book
References
2 Renewable Energy: Overview, Opportunities and Challenges
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Description of Renewable Energy Sources. 2.2.1 Bioenergy Energy
2.2.2 Geothermal Energy
2.2.3 Hydropower Energy
2.2.4 Marine Energy
2.2.5 Solar Energy
2.2.5.1 Photovoltaic
2.2.5.2 Concentrated Solar Power
2.2.5.3 Solar Thermal Heating and Cooling
2.2.6 Wind Energy
2.3 Renewable Energy: Growth, Investment, Benefits and Deployment
2.4 Smart Grid Enable Renewables
2.5 Conclusion
References
3 Power Electronics Converters for Distributed Generation
3.1 An Overview of Distributed Generation Systems with Power Electronics
3.1.1 Photovoltaic Technology
3.1.2 Wind Power Technology
3.1.3 Energy Storage Systems
3.2 Power Electronics for Grid‐Connected AC Smart Grid
3.2.1 Voltage‐Source Converters
3.2.1.1 Synchronous Reference Frame
3.2.1.2 Stationary Reference Frame
3.2.1.3 Grid Synchronization
3.2.1.4 Virtual Synchronous Generator Operation
3.2.2 Multilevel Power Converters
3.3 Power Electronics Enabled Autonomous AC Power Systems
3.3.1 Converter Level Controls in Microgrids
3.3.1.1 Master–slave Operation
3.3.1.2 f‐P and V‐Q Droops
3.3.1.3 V‐P and f‐Q Droops
3.3.1.4 Virtual Impedance Enabled Control
3.3.2 System Level Coordination Control
3.3.2.1 Centralized Control Scheme
3.3.2.2 Distributed Control Scheme
3.4 Power Electronics Enabled Autonomous DC Power Systems
3.4.1 Converter Level Controls
3.4.1.1 V‐P and V‐I Droop Control
3.4.1.2 Virtual Impedance Enabled Control
3.4.1.3 Extended Droop Control
3.4.1.4 Adaptative Droop Control in DC Microgrids
3.4.2 System Level Coordination Control
3.4.2.1 Centralized Control Scheme
3.4.2.2 Distributed Control Scheme
3.5 Conclusion
References
4 Energy Storage Systems as an Enabling Technology for the Smart Grid
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Structure of Energy Storage System
4.3 Energy Storage Systems Classification and Description
4.4 Current State of Energy Storage Technologies
4.5 Techno‐Economic Characteristics of Energy Storage Systems
4.6 Selection of Energy Storage Technology for Certain Application
4.7 Energy Storage Applications
4.8 Barriers to the Deployment of Energy Storage
4.9 Energy Storage Roadmap
4.10 Conclusion
References
5 Microgrids: State‐of‐the‐Art and Future Challenges
5.1 Introduction
5.2 DC Versus AC Microgrid
5.2.1 LVAC and LVDC Networks
5.2.2 AC Microgrid
5.2.3 DC Microgrid
5.3 Microgrid Design
5.3.1 Methodology for the Microgrid Design
5.3.2 Design Considerations
5.4 Microgrid Control
5.4.1 Primary Control Level
5.4.1.1 Droop‐Based Control
5.4.1.2 Communication‐Based Control
5.4.2 Secondary Control Level
5.4.3 Tertiary Control Level
5.5 Microgrid Economics
5.5.1 Capacity Planning
5.5.2 Operations Modeling
5.5.3 Financial Modeling
5.5.4 Barriers to Realizing Microgrids
5.6 Operation of Multi‐Microgrids
5.7 Microgrid Benefits
5.7.1 Economic Benefits
5.7.2 Technical Benefits
5.7.3 Environmental Benefits
5.8 Challenges
5.9 Conclusion
References
6 Smart Transportation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Electric Vehicle Topologies
6.2.1 Battery EVs
6.2.2 Plug‐in Hybrid EVs
6.2.3 Hybrid EVs
6.2.4 Fuel‐Cell EVs
6.3 Powertrain Architectures
6.3.1 Series HEV Architecture
6.3.2 Parallel HEV Architecture
6.3.3 Series–Parallel HEV Architecture
6.4 Battery Technology
6.4.1 Battery Parameters
6.4.2 Common Battery Chemistries
6.5 Battery Charger Technology
6.5.1 Charging Rates and Options
6.5.2 Wireless Charging
6.6 Vehicle to Grid (V2G) Concept
6.6.1 Unidirectional V2G
6.6.2 Bidirectional V2G
6.7 Barriers to EV Adoption
6.7.1 Technological Problems
6.7.2 Social Problems
6.7.3 Economic Problems
6.8 Trends and Future Developments
6.9 Conclusion
References
7 Net Zero Energy Buildings
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Net Zero Energy Building Definition
7.3 Net Zero Energy Building Design
7.4 Net Zero Energy Building: Modeling, Controlling and Optimization
7.5 Net Zero Energy Community
7.6 Net Zero Energy Building: Trends, Benefits, Barriers and Efficiency Investments
7.7 Conclusion
References
8 Smart Grid Communication Infrastructures. 8.1 Introduction
8.2 Advanced Metering Infrastructure
8.3 Smart Grid Communications. 8.3.1 Challenges of SG Communications
8.3.2 Requirements of SG Communications
8.3.3 Architecture of SG Communication
8.3.4 SG Communication Technologies
8.4 Conclusion
References
9 Smart Grid Information Security
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Smart Grid Layers
9.2.1 The Power System Layer
9.2.2 The Information Layer
9.2.3 The Communication Layer
9.3 Attacking Smart Grid Network Communication
9.3.1 Physical Layer Attacks
9.3.2 Data Injection and Replay Attacks
9.3.3 Network‐Based Attacks
9.4 Design of Cyber Secure and Resilient Industrial Control Systems. 9.4.1 Resilient Industrial Control Systems
9.4.2 Areas of Resilience. 9.4.2.1 Human Systems
9.4.2.2 Cyber Security
9.4.2.3 Complex Networks and Networked Control Systems
9.5 Cyber Security Challenges in Smart Grid
9.6 Adopting an Smart Grid Security Architecture Methodology
9.6.1 SG Security Objectives
9.6.2 Cyber Security Requirements
9.6.2.1 Attack Detection and Resilience Operations
9.6.2.2 Identification, and Access Control
9.6.2.3 Secure and Efficient Communication Protocols
9.7 Validating Your Smart Grid
9.8 Threats and Impacts: Consumers and Utility Companies
9.9 Governmental Effort to Secure Smart Grids
9.10 Conclusion
References
10 Data Management in Smart Grid
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Sources of Data in Smart Grid
10.3 Big Data Era
10.4 Tools to Manage Big Data
10.4.1 Apache Hadoop
10.4.2 Not Only SQL (NoSQL)
10.4.3 Microsoft HDInsight
10.4.4 Hadoop MapReduce
10.4.5 Cassandra
10.4.6 Storm
10.4.7 Hive
10.4.8 Plotly
10.4.9 Talend
10.4.10 Bokeh
10.4.11 Cloudera
10.5 Big Data Integration, Frameworks, and Data Bases
10.6 Building the Foundation for Big Data Processing
10.6.1 Big Data Management Platform
10.6.1.1 Acquisition and Recording
10.6.1.2 Extraction, Cleaning, and Prediction
10.6.1.3 Big Data Integration
10.6.2 Big Data Analytics Platform
10.6.2.1 Modeling and Analysis
10.6.2.2 Interpretation
10.7 Transforming Big Data for High Value Action
10.7.1 Decide What to Produce
10.7.2 Source the Raw Materials
10.7.3 Produce Insights with Speed
10.7.4 Deliver the Goods and Act
10.8 Privacy Information Impacts on Smart Grid
10.9 Meter Data Management for Smart Grid
10.10 Summary
References
11 Demand‐Management
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Demand Response
11.3 Demand Response Programs
11.3.1 Load‐Response Programs
11.3.2 Price Response Programs
11.4 End‐User Engagement
11.5 Challenges of DR within Smart Grid
11.6 Demand‐Side Management
11.7 DSM Techniques
11.8 DSM Evaluation
11.9 Demand Response Applications
11.10 Summary
References
12 Business Models for the Smart Grid
12.1 The Business Model Concept
12.2 The Electricity Value Chain
12.3 Electricity Markets
12.4 Review of the Previous Proposed Smart Grid Business Models
12.4.1 Timing‐Based Business Model
12.4.2 Business Intelligence Model
12.4.3 Business Models for Renewable Energy
12.4.4 Service‐Oriented Business Models
12.4.5 Prosumer Business Models
12.4.6 Integrated Energy Services Business Model
12.4.7 Future Business Model Levers
12.5 Blockchain‐Based Electricity Market
12.6 Conclusion
References
13 Smart Grid Customers' Acceptance and Engagement
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Customer as One of the Smart Grid Domains
13.3 Understanding the Smart Grid Customer
13.4 Smart Grid Customer Acceptance
13.5 Customer Engagement in the Smart Grid
13.6 Challenges for Consumer Engagement, Policy Recommendation and Research Agenda
13.7 Conclusion
References
14 Cloud Computing for Smart Grid
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Overview of Cloud Computing for Smart Grid
14.3 Cloud Computing Service Models
14.3.1 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)
14.3.2 Platform‐as‐a‐Service (PaaS)
14.3.3 Software‐as‐a‐Service (SaaS)
Public Cloud
Private cloud
Hybrid Cloud
14.4 Cloud Computing Architecture
14.4.1 Workload Distribution Architecture
14.4.2 Cloud Bursting Architecture
14.4.3 Dynamic Scalable Architecture
14.4.4 Elastic Resource Capacity Architecture
14.4.5 Resource Pooling Architecture
14.5 Cloud Computing Applications
14.5.1 Cloud Applications for SG Performance
14.5.2 Cloud Applications for Energy Management
14.5.3 Cloud Computing‐Based Power Dispatching in SG
14.6 Cloud Computing Characteristics in Improving Smart Grid
14.7 Opportunities and Challenges of Cloud Computing in Smart Grid
14.7.1 Opportunities to Apply CC in SG. 14.7.1.1 Scalability
14.7.1.2 Cost Efficiency
14.7.1.3 Central Data Storage
14.7.1.4 Real‐Time Response
14.7.2 Challenges of Applying Cloud Computing for SGs
14.7.2.1 Location of Data
14.7.2.2 Data Commingling
14.7.2.3 Application Programming Interfaces Dependency
14.7.2.4 Compatibility
14.7.2.5 Inefficient Cloud Security Policy
14.8 Multiple Perspectives for Cloud Implementation
14.9 Conclusion
References
15 On the Pivotal Role of Artificial Intelligence Toward the Evolution of Smart Grids: A Review of Advanced Methodologies and Applications
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Research Methodology and Systematic Review Protocol
15.3 Century‐Old Grid and Smart Grid Transition
15.4 Review of AI Methods
15.4.1 Commonly Deployed Methods
15.4.1.1 Artificial Neural Networks‐Based (ANN)
15.4.1.2 Fuzzy Logic‐Based
15.4.1.3 Ensemble Methods‐Based
15.4.1.4 Deep Learning‐Based
15.4.1.5 Expert Systems‐Based
15.4.1.6 Support Vector Machines‐Based
15.4.1.7 Hybrid Models‐Based
15.4.2 Machine Learning Model Evaluation
15.5 Major Applications of AI in Smart Grid
15.5.1 Load Forecasting
15.5.2 Alternative Energy Forecasting
15.5.2.1 Photovoltaic Energy
15.5.2.2 Wind Power
15.5.3 Electrical Vehicles Integration Based AI
15.5.4 MPPT‐Based AI
15.5.5 Fault Diagnosis‐Based AI
15.5.6 AI and Cyber SG Security
15.5.7 Electricity Price Forecasting
15.6 Challenges and Future Scope
15.7 Conclusion
References
16 Simulation Tools for Validation of Smart Grid
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Simulation Approaches
16.2.1 Multi‐Domain Simulation
16.2.2 Co‐Simulation
16.2.3 Real‐Time Simulation and Hardware‐in‐the‐Loop
16.3 Review of Smart Grid Planning and Analysis Tools
16.3.1 PSCAD
16.3.2 PowerWorld Simulator
16.3.3 ETAP
16.3.4 DIgSILENT PowerFactory
16.3.5 OpenDSS
16.3.6 GridLab‐D
16.3.7 Conclusion
References
17 Smart Grid Standards and Interoperability
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Organizations for Smart Grid Standardization
17.2.1 IEC Strategic Group on SG
17.2.2 Technical Communities and Their Subcommittees of IEEE Power and Energy Society (PES)
17.2.3 National Institute of Standards and Technology
17.2.4 National Standard of PRC for SG
17.3 Smart Grid Policies for Standard Developments. 17.3.1 United States
17.3.2 Germany
17.3.3 Europe
17.3.4 South Korea
17.3.5 Australia
17.3.6 Canada
17.3.7 Japan
17.3.8 China
17.4 Smart Grid Standards
17.4.1 Revenue Metering Information Model
17.4.2 Building Automation
17.4.3 Substation Automation
17.4.4 Powerline Networking
17.4.5 Energy Management Systems
17.4.6 Interoperability Center Communications
17.4.7 Cyber Security
17.4.8 Electric Vehicles
17.5 Conclusion
References
18 Smart Grid Challenges and Barriers
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Structure of Modern Smart Grids
18.3 Concept of Reliability in Power Systems
18.4 Smart Grid Challenges and Barriers
18.4.1 Low Inertia Issues – Frequency Support
18.4.2 Moving Toward Full/More Renewable Energies
18.4.3 Protection Challenges
18.4.4 Control Dynamic Interactions
18.4.5 Reliability Issues
18.4.6 Marketing
18.5 New Reliability Paradigm in Smart Grids
18.5.1 Adequacy
18.5.2 Security
18.5.3 Static Security
18.5.4 Dynamic/Transient Security
18.5.5 Cyber Security
18.6 Summary
References
Index. a
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