Оглавление
Группа авторов. Ice Adhesion
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Pages
Ice Adhesion. Mechanism, Measurement and Mitigation
Preface
1 Factors Influencing the Formation, Adhesion, and Friction of Ice
1.1 A Brief History of Man and Ice. 1.1.1 Ice on Earth
1.1.2 Man is Carved of Ice
1.1.3 Modern Man Carves Ice
1.2 A Thermodynamically Designed Anti-Icing Surface
1.2.1 Homogeneous Classical Nucleation Theory
1.2.2 Heterogeneous Classical Nucleation Theory
1.2.3 Predicting Delays in Ice Nucleation
1.2.4 Predicting Ice Nucleation Temperatures
1.3 The Adhesion of Ice to Surfaces
1.3.1 Wetting and Icing of Ideal Surfaces
1.3.2 Wetting of Real Surfaces
1.3.3 Ice Adhesion to Real Surfaces
1.4 The Sliding Friction of Ice
1.4.1 Ice Friction Regimes
1.4.2 The Origin of Ice’s Liquid-Like Layer
1.4.3 Parameters Affecting the Friction Coefficient of Ice In the following subsection the effect of each important parameter on the coefficient of friction of ice is discussed. Particularly, the important parameters will be presented through their relationship to the thickness of the pertinent liquid-like lubricating layer
1.5 Summary
References
Note
2 Water and Ice Nucleation on Solid Surfaces
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Classical Nucleation Theory
2.2.1 Homogeneous Nucleation Rate
2.2.1.1 Homogeneous Nucleation of Water Droplets and Ice from Vapor
2.2.1.2 Homogeneous Ice Nucleation in Supercooled Water
2.2.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation Rate
2.2.2.1 Heterogeneous Water Nucleation on Solid Surfaces
2.2.3 Spatial Control of Water Nucleation on Nanoengineered Surfaces
2.2.4 Heterogeneous Ice Nucleation in Supercooled Water
2.3 Prospects
2.4 Summary
Acknowledgement
References
Notes
3 Physics of Ice Nucleation and Growth on a Surface
3.1 Ice Nucleation
3.2 Ice Growth
3.2.1 Scenario I: Droplet in an Environment without Airflow
3.2.2 Scenario II: Droplet in an Environment with External Airflow
3.3 Ice Bridging Phenomenon
3.4 Summary
References
Notes
4 Condensation Frosting
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Why Supercooled Condensation?
4.3 Inter-Droplet Freeze Fronts
4.4 Dry Zones and Anti-Frosting Surfaces
4.5 Summary and Future Directions
References
Note
5 The Role of Droplet Dynamics in Condensation Frosting
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Nucleation
5.3 Growth
5.4 Coalescence and Sweeping
5.5 Regeneration or Re-Nucleation
5.6 Inception of Freezing
5.7 Freezing Front Propagation
5.8 Ice Bridging
5.9 Frost Growth and Densification
5.10 Concluding Discussion
Acknowledgments
References
Note
6 Defrosting Properties of Structured Surfaces
6.1 Introduction: Defrosting on Smooth Surfaces
6.2 Defrosting Heat Exchangers
6.3 Dynamic Defrosting on Micro-Grooved Surfaces
6.4 Dynamic Defrosting on Liquid-Impregnated Surfaces
6.5 Dynamic Defrosting on Nanostructured Superhydrophobic Surfaces
6.6 Summary and Future Directions
References
Note
7 On the Relationship between Surface Free Energy and Ice Adhesion of Flat Anti-Icing Surfaces
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Types of Ice Formation. 7.2.1 Ice Formation from Supercooled Drops on a Surface
7.2.2 Frost Formation from the Existing Humidity in the Medium
7.3 Work of Adhesion, Wettability and Surface Free Energy
7.4 Factors Affecting Ice Adhesion Strength and its Standardization
7.5 Effect of Water Contact Angle and Surface Free Energy Parameters on Ice Adhesion Strength
7.6 Summary
References
Note
8 Metrology of Ice Adhesion
8.1 Theory of Ice Adhesion to a Surface
8.2 Centrifugal Force Method
8.3 Peak Force Method
8.4 Tensile Force Method
8.5 Standard Procedure for Ice Adhesion Measurement
8.6 Summary
References
Note
9 Tensile and Shear Test Methods for Quantifying the Ice Adhesion Strength to a Surface
Glossary
9.1 Introduction
9.2 About Ice, Impact Ice, and Ice Adhesion Tests
9.2.1 Relationship between Wettability and Ice Adhesion
9.2.2 A Simple Picture of Condition-Dependent Ice Growth
9.2.3 Factors Affecting Ice Adhesion Strength
9.3 Review of Ice Adhesion Test Methods
9.3.1 Shear Tests
9.3.1.1 Pusher and Lap Shear Tests
9.3.1.2 Spinning Test Rigs
9.3.1.3 Vibrating Cantilever Tests
9.3.2 Tensile Tests
9.4 Prospects
9.5 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
Notes
10 Comparison of Icephobic Materials through Interlaboratory Studies
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Icephobicity and Anti-Icing Surfaces
10.3 Ice Formation and Properties
10.3.1 Definitions of Ice
10.3.2 The Effect of Ice Type on Ice Adhesion Strength
10.4 Testing Ice Adhesion
10.4.1 Description of Selected Common Ice Adhesion Tests
10.4.2 Adhesion Reduction Factor
10.4.3 Effect of Experimental Parameters
10.4.3.1 Temperature
10.4.3.2 Ice Sample Size
10.4.3.3 Force Probe Placement and Loading Rate
10.5 Comparing Low Ice Adhesion Surfaces with Interlaboratory Tests
10.5.1 The Need for Comparability
10.5.2 Interlaboratory Test Procedure
10.5.3 Interlaboratory Test Results
10.5.4 Properties of a Future Standard and Reference
10.6 Concluding Remarks
References
Notes
11 Mechanisms of Surface Icing and Deicing Technologies
11.1 A Brief Description of Icing and Ice Adhesion
11.2 Examples of Mathematical Modeling of Icing on Various Static or Moving Surfaces
11.3 New Applications of Common Deicing Compounds
11.4 Plasma-Based Deicing Systems
11.5 Functional Super (Hydrophilic) or Wettable Polymeric Coatings to Resist Icing
11.6 Nanoscale Carbon Coatings with/without Resistive Heating
11.7 Antifreeze Proteins
11.8 Summary and Perspectives
References
Note
12 Icephobicities of Superhydrophobic Surfaces
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Anti-Icing Property of Superhydrophobic Surfaces under Dynamic Flow Conditions. 12.2.1 Preparation of Superhydrophobic Surfaces
12.2.2 Anti-Icing Test under Dynamic Flow Conditions
12.2.3 Results and Discussion
12.3 Analytical Models of Depinning Force on Superhydrophobic Surfaces
12.4 Analytical Models of Contact Angles on Superhydrophobic Surfaces
12.5 De-Icing Property of Superhydrophobic Surfaces under Static Conditions. 12.5.1 De-Icing Test under Static Conditions
12.5.2 Results and Discussion
12.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Note
13 Ice Adhesion and Anti-Icing Using Microtextured Surfaces
13.1 Introduction. 13.1.1 Background
13.1.2 State-of-the-Art
13.2 Microtextured Surfaces: Wetting Characteristics and Anti-Icing Properties. 13.2.1 Wetting on Microtextured Surfaces
13.2.2 Wetting and Icephobic Surfaces
13.2.3 Ice Adhesion to Microtextured Surfaces
13.3 Measurement Methods for Ice Adhesion
13.3.1 Force Measurement Techniques
13.3.2 Contact Area Measurements
13.3.3 Measurement Variance and Error
13.4 Fabrication Methods for Microtextured Surfaces
13.4.1 Micro/Nanoparticle Coatings
13.4.2 Chemical Etching
13.4.3 Laser Ablation Techniques
13.4.4 Embossing Techniques
13.5 Microtextured Surfaces and Anti-Icing Applications
13.5.1 Solar
13.5.2 Wind
13.5.3 Aircraft
13.5.4 HVAC
13.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook
Acknowledgments
References
Note
14 Icephobic Surfaces: Features and Challenges
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Features and Challenges in Rational Fabrication of Icephobic Surfaces
14.3 Wettability
14.4 Surface Engineering
14.4.1 Repelling Impacting Droplets. 14.4.1.1 Drop Impact Characterization
14.4.1.2 Enhancing Surface Resistance against Drop Impact. 14.4.1.2.1 Pore Size
14.4.1.2.2 Surface Texture
14.4.1.2.3 Surface Elasticity
14.4.1.2.3.1 Surface Flexibility
14.4.1.2.3.2 Surface Softness
14.4.1.2.4 Thermal Properties
14.4.1.3 Additional Factors Affecting Supercooled Droplet Impacts. 14.4.1.3.1 Ambient Pressure
14.4.2 Freezing Delay
14.4.2.1 Delaying Freezing of a Droplet
14.4.2.1.1 Surface Texturing
14.4.2.1.2 Smooth Surfaces
14.4.2.2 Delaying Frost Formation
14.4.2.2.1 Surface Engineering to Delay Frost Formation. 14.4.2.2.1.1 Surface Morphology
14.4.2.2.1.2 Thermal Conductivity
14.4.2.2.1.3 Surface Softness
14.4.3 Ice Adhesion. 14.4.3.1 Theory
14.4.3.1.1 Work of Adhesion
14.4.3.1.2 Crack Formation
14.4.3.2 Strategies to Lower Ice Adhesion Strength
14.4.3.2.1 Wettability Tuning
14.4.3.2.2 Stiffness Tuning
14.4.3.2.2.1 Facilitating Crack Formation
14.4.3.2.3 Toughness Tuning
14.4.3.2.4 Slippery Surfaces
14.4.3.2.4.1 Liquid Infused Surfaces
14.4.3.2.4.2 Self-Hydrating Surfaces
14.4.3.2.4.3 Hybrid Interfaces
14.5 De-Icing
14.5.1 Electro- and Photo-Thermal
14.5.2 Magneto- and Photo-Thermal
14.6 Summary
References
Note
15 Bio-Inspired Anti-Icing Surface Materials
Glossary of Symbols
Glossary of Abbreviations
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Depressing Ice Nucleation
15.3 Retarding Ice Propagation
15.4 Reducing Ice Adhesion
15.5 All-in-One Anti-Icing Materials
15.6 Summary and Conclusions
References
Note
16 Testing the Durability of Anti-Icing Coatings
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Icing/Deicing Tests and Ice Types
16.2.1 Evaluating the Durability of Surfaces
16.2.2 Rough Superhydrophobic Surfaces and their Durability
16.2.3 Smooth Hydrophobic Surfaces and their Durability
16.3 Concluding Remarks
References
Note
17 Durability Assessment of Icephobic Coatings
17.1 Introduction
17.2 UV-Induced Degradation
17.2.1 Autocatalytic Photo-Induced Degradation Mechanism
17.2.2 Factors Affecting UV Resistance
17.2.3 UV-Induced Photo-Oxidation Prevention
17.3 Hydrolytic Degradation of Coatings
17.4 Atmospheric Conditions and Changes in Coating Performance
17.5 Mechanical Durability of Coating
17.5.1 Cracking
17.5.2 Erosion of Coatings
17.5.3 Abrasion
17.6 Methods for Durability Assessment of an Icephobic Coating
17.7 Summary
References
Note
18 Experimental Investigations on Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings for Aircraft Inflight Icing Mitigation
18.1 Introduction About Aircraft Icing Phenomena
18.2 Impact Icing Pertinent to Aircraft Icing vs. Conventional Frosting or Static Icing
18.3 State-of-the-Art Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings
18.3.1 Superhydrophobic Surfaces with Micro-/Nano-Scale Textures
18.3.2 Slippery Liquid-Infused Porous Surfaces
18.3.3 Icephobic Soft Materials with Ultra-Low Ice Adhesion Strength and Good Mechanical Durability
18.4 Comparison of Ice Adhesion Strengths of Different Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings
18.5 Durability of the Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings under High-Speed Droplet Impacting
18.6 Icing Tunnel Testing to Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Icephobic Coatings for Impact Icing Mitigation
18.7 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Note
19 Effect of and Protection from Ice Accretion on Aircraft
Glossary
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Fundamental Icing Parameters
19.2.1 Droplet Diameter
19.2.2 Liquid Water Content
19.2.3 Ambient Icing Temperature
19.3 Types of Ice on Aircraft
19.3.1 Rime Ice
19.3.2 Glaze Ice
19.3.3 Mixed Ice
19.4 Aircraft Icing Effects
19.4.1 Iced Aerodynamics. 19.4.1.1 Drag Rise
19.4.1.2 Lift Reduction
19.4.1.3 Moment Variation
19.4.1.4 Separation Bubble Formation
19.4.1.5 Boundary Layer Thickening
19.4.2 Iced Flight Mechanics
19.4.2.1 Flight Performance Disruption
19.4.2.2 Stability and Control Degradation
19.5 Sensing of and Protection from Aircraft Icing. 19.5.1 Sensing of Ice Accretion
19.5.2 De-Icing and Anti-Icing
19.5.3 Envelope Protection
19.5.4 Control Reconfiguration
19.6 Summary
Funding and Acknowledgement
References
Notes
20 Numerical Modeling and Its Application to Inflight Icing
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Aircraft Icing. 20.2.1 Icing Environment. 20.2.1.1 Cloud Formation
20.2.1.2 Cloud Classification
20.2.1.2.1 High Clouds
20.2.1.2.2 Middle Clouds
20.2.1.2.3 Low Clouds
20.2.1.2.4 Clouds of Vertical Development
20.2.1.3 Icing Cloud
20.2.1.3.1 Stratiform Clouds
20.2.1.3.2 Cumuliform Clouds
20.2.1.4 Icing Envelope
20.2.2 Icing Mechanism. 20.2.2.1 Fundamentals of Icing. 20.2.2.1.1 Ice Formation Process
20.2.2.1.2 Icing Parameters
20.2.2.2 Characterization of Ice Shape. 20.2.2.2.1 Rime Ice
20.2.2.2.2 Glaze Ice
20.2.2.2.3 Mixed Ice
20.2.2.3 Critical Issues in Icing Physics
20.2.2.3.1 Surface Roughness
20.2.2.3.2 Supercooled Large Droplet (SLD)
20.3 Numerical Technique for Inflight Icing
20.3.1 Composition of the Inflight Icing Code
20.3.2 Flow Analysis Solver
20.3.2.1 Inviscid Flow Solver
20.3.2.1.1 Boundary Layer Code
20.3.2.2 Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) Equation
20.3.2.2.1 Turbulence Modeling
20.3.2.2.2 Surface Roughness Modeling
20.3.3 Droplet Trajectory Module
20.3.3.1 Lagrangian Approach
20.3.3.2 Eulerian Approach
20.3.4 Thermodynamic Module
20.3.4.1 Messinger Model
20.3.4.2 Extended Messinger Model (Stefan Equation)
20.3.4.3 Shallow Water Icing Model (SWIM)
20.3.5 Ice Growth Module
20.3.6 Application of the Numerical Simulation
20.3.6.1 2D Airfoil
20.3.6.2 3D DLR-F6 Configuration
20.3.6.3 Rotorcraft Fuselage
20.4 Numerical Simulation of Icing Protection System (IPS)
20.4.1 IPS
20.4.2 Simulation for IPS
20.4.3 Thermal IPS Simulation Analysis
20.4.3.1 Electro-Thermal IPS Simulation
20.4.3.2 Water Film Analysis
20.5 Numerical Issues in the Inflight Icing Code. 20.5.1 Analysis of the Surface Roughness
20.5.2 Analysis of the Transition in the Boundary Layer Problem
20.5.3 Analysis of the Rotor Blade Icing Problem
20.5.4 Analysis of the Uncertainty Qualification (UQ)
20.6 Summary
References
Note
Index
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