Оглавление
Группа авторов. A Guide to the Scientific Career
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
A Guide to the Scientific Career. Virtues, Communication, Research, and AcademicWriting
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Defining and Re‐Defining Success
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Success Mindsets. 1.2.1 Success Is a State of Mind
1.2.2 Success in Not Accidental
1.2.3 Success Is Simple
1.2.4 Success Is an Ever‐Changing State
1.2.5 Success Is Measurable
1.2.6 Success Makes You a Better Person
1.2.7 Happiness and Success Are Mutually Inclusive
1.2.8 Success and Fame Are Independent
1.2.9 Success and Failure Are Self‐Perpetuating in Nature
1.2.10 Values and Success Are Not the Same Things
1.2.11 Relativity of Success: Success Is a Self‐Defined Phenomenon
1.2.12 Pareto Principle: The Major Part of Success Comes from a Small Fraction of Our Decisions and Actions
1.2.13 The “Luck” Paradox
1.2.14 Opportunities Are Created
1.2.15 Failure Is a Key to Success
1.2.16 Success Is the Outcome of Struggle for Excellence, Not Struggle for Winning
1.3 Prerequisites Are Internal Factors Required to Become Successful
1.4 Methods Are Conscious Actions One Should Take to Pave the Road to Success
1.5 Enhancers or Catalysts Are External Factors that Enhance One's Chance of Success
1.6 Inhibitors Are Internal or External Factors that Diminish One's Chance of Success
Reference
2 Qualities of Research Scientists: Personality and Leadership Attributes of Research Team Members
2.1 Leadership
2.2 Personality and Interpersonal Relationships
2.2.1 Relationships to Others: Extroversion (E) Versus Introversion (I)
2.2.2 How Information Is Gathered and Metabolized: Sensing (S) Versus Intuition (N)
2.2.3 Decision‐Making Ability: Thinking (T) Versus Feeling (F)
2.2.4 Organization: Judgment (J) Versus Perception (P)
2.3 Continuous Self‐Assessment
2.4 Tips for Developing a Leader‐Quality Scientist. 2.4.1 Be an Entrepreneur
2.4.2 Work Hard and Work Smart
2.4.3 Listen, Observe, and Learn on a Daily Basis
2.4.4 Think, Plan, and Take Action
2.4.5 Translate Vision into Reality
2.4.6 Empower Your Followers
2.4.7 Delegate Tasks Whenever Feasible
2.4.8 Establish Priorities
References
3 Building a Personal Vision Statement
3.1 Personal Vision Statement and Portfolio Overview
3.2 Getting Started
3.3 Vision Statement in Action
3.4 Rules to Guide Vision Statement Development
3.5 Conclusions
References
Further Reading
4 Creativity and Novel Hypotheses
4.1 Creativity and Science
4.2 What Are Mind Maps?
4.2.1 How to Create Mind Maps
4.2.2 Mind Map of a Textbook Chapter
4.3 Mind Maps and Novel Hypotheses
References
5 Confidence and Its Impact on Your Aspiring Career
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Sources of Confidence
5.3 Influence of Confidence on Your Career
5.4 Confidence Spectrum
5.4.1 Low Confidence and Insecurity
5.4.2 Overconfidence
5.5 Dunning‐Kruger Effect
5.6 Importance of Feedback
5.7 Overcoming Confidence Issues
References
6 Career Satisfaction and Its Determinants
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Determinants of Career Satisfaction
6.2.1 Gender and Career Satisfaction
6.3 Career Satisfaction in Medicine
6.3.1 Career Satisfaction in Primary Care Physicians
6.3.2 Clinical Specialties and Career Satisfaction
6.3.3 Demographic Determinants of Career Satisfaction Among Medical Graduates
6.4 Research and the Physician‐Scientist
6.5 Career Satisfaction and Productivity
6.6 Conclusions
References
7 Spiritual Dimensions of Biomedical Research
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Virtues in Research
7.3 A Christian‐Platonic Background of Virtues
7.4 Skills Versus Wisdom
7.4.1 Wisdom Is the Space Where Science and Religion Can Meet
7.5 A Crystallizing Example
Acknowledgment
References
8 Publishing in Academic Medicine: Does It Translate into a Successful Career?
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Dissemination of Knowledge and Impacting Patient Care
8.3 Becoming a Recognized Expert
8.4 Academic Promotion
8.5 Professional Standing
8.6 Personal Satisfaction
8.7 Editorial Benefits
8.8 Professional Contacts
8.9 Summary: Does Publishing Scholarly Articles Translate into a Successful Scientific Career?
Reference
9 Assessing a Researcher's Scientific Productivity and Scholarly Impact
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The h‐Index
9.3 Criticisms of the h‐Index
9.4 Modifications and Extensions of the h‐Index
9.5 A General Criticism on the Use of Metrics
9.6 Citation Data Sources
9.7 Discussion
References
Further Reading
Notes
10 Manners in Academics
10.1 General Aspects
10.1.1 Accommodate
10.1.2 Collaborate
10.1.3 Facilitate
10.1.4 Communicate
10.2 Manners in Academic Writing and Publishing
10.2.1 Do Academic Manners in Writing Exist?
10.2.2 What Are Manners in Academic Writing?
10.2.3 Are Manners in Academic Writing Necessary?
10.2.4 Thanking the Editor and Reviewers
10.2.5 Do Not Take Reviewer Comments Personally
10.2.6 Try to Accommodate the Reviewer's Suggestions
10.2.7 Respect to Editorial Staff
10.2.8 Respect Your Co‐Authors
10.2.9 Respect to the Publisher
10.2.10 Respect Authors Who Contribute
10.2.11 Academic Manners as a Reviewer
10.3 Conclusions
11 Emotional Intelligence: Its Place in Your Professional and Academic Careers
11.1 Background
11.2 The Importance of EQ in Academia and on the Job
11.3 Major Aspects of Emotional Intelligence
11.3.1 Self‐Awareness
11.3.2 Managing Emotions
11.3.3 Motivation
11.3.4 Empathy/Social Skills
11.4 Developing EQ
References
12 Communication Skills
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Effective Communication
12.3 Communication in the Scientific and Medical Community
12.3.1 Written Communications
12.3.2 Informal Meetings
References
13 Learning Charisma
13.1 Introduction
13.2 What Is Charisma?
13.3 Learning How to Be Charismatic
13.4 Improving Your Charisma
13.5 Conclusions
References
14 Essence of Collaborative Research: Leadership, Engaging Others, and Cooperativeness
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Why Collaborate?
14.3 Challenges to Collaborative Research
14.4 Ethical Considerations
14.5 How to Make Collaborations Work
14.6 Conclusions
References
15 Personal Branding for Physicians and Researchers
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Personal Branding and Authenticity
15.3 Your Brand Plan: Defining Your Positioning
15.3.1 Positioning Examples. 15.3.1.1 Case 1: A Community Pediatrician
15.3.1.2 Case 2: A Community Surgeon
15.3.1.3 Case 3: A Clinical Oncologist/Researcher at an Academic Hospital
15.4 Creating Your Brand Elements
15.4.1 Brand Elements Examples. 15.4.1.1 Case 1: A Community Pediatrician
15.4.1.2 Case 2: A Community Surgeon
15.4.1.3 Case 3: A Clinical Oncologist/Researcher at an Academic Hospital
15.5 Strategizing Your Tactics
15.5.1 Tactical Examples. 15.5.1.1 Case 1: A Community Pediatrician
15.5.1.2 Case 2: A Community Surgeon
15.5.1.3 Case 3: A Clinical Oncologist/Researcher at an Academic Hospital
15.6 Executing Your Brand Plan
15.7 Conclusion
Further Reading
16 Dealing with Manipulative People
16.1 Tips for Avoiding the Traps of a Manipulator
16.1.1 Know the Kind of Persons You're Dealing With
16.1.2 Educate Yourself about Manipulative Tactics
16.1.3 Divest Yourself of Harmful Misconceptions
16.2 Neurosis versus Pathology: A Continuum
16.3 Aggressive Personalities
16.4 Tactics Used by the Covert‐Aggressor
16.4.1 Covert Intimidation
16.4.2 Lying
16.4.3 Denial
16.4.4 Feigning Confusion/Ignorance and Innocence
16.4.5 Playing the Role of Victim
16.5 Tips for Setting the Terms of Engagement
Reference
17 Honesty and Truth in Academic Research and Writing
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Truth
17.3 Honesty
17.4 Dishonesty
17.5 Spectrum of Fraud
17.6 Learning from the Past
17.7 The Pattern of Fraud
17.8 Conflicts of Interest
17.9 Lessons for the Future
Acknowledgment
References
18 Writing and Scientific Misconduct: Ethical and Legal Aspects
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Ethical Aspects
18.2.1 Avoiding Type‐One Scientific Misconduct
18.2.2 Avoiding Type‐Two Scientific Misconduct
18.3 Legal Aspects
18.3.1 Breach of Contract
18.3.2 Criminal Law Violations
18.3.3 Additional Consequences
References
Notes
19 Plagiarism and How to Avoid It
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Definition of the Plagiarism Problem
19.3 Academic Integrity and Plagiarism
19.3.1 Plagiarism by Students
19.3.2 The Complexity of Plagiarism among Students
19.3.3 Plagiarism in Medical Schools and Colleges
19.4 Intellectual Dishonesty and Plagiarism in Science
19.4.1 Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE)
19.4.2 The European Association of Science Editors (EASE)
19.5 Detection of Plagiarism: Electronic Tools
19.5.1 Choosing a Tool to Detect Plagiarism
19.6 Prevention of Plagiarism: A Better Remedy
19.6.1 Teaching Ethical Writing
19.6.2 Screening for Plagiarism
19.6.3 Reducing Student Plagiarism
19.7 Penalties for Plagiarism
19.7.1 The Dilemma of Who, What, When, and How
19.7.2 Preventing and Monitoring Student Plagiarism
19.8 Conclusions
References
Further Reading
Notes
20 Conflicts of Interest: A Simple Explanation
20.1 Introduction
20.2 What Is a Conflict of Interest?
20.2.1 What Are Our Primary Interests?
20.2.2 What Are the Secondary Interests?
20.2.3 What Is Meant by Unduly Influenced?
20.3 Why Does Avoidance or Full Disclosure of Conflicts‐of‐Interest Matter?
Reference
21 Gender Differences in Medical Research Productivity
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Gender Differences in Scholarly Productivity
21.3 Gender Differences in Research Funding
21.4 Issues Potentially Facilitating Gender Differences in Research
21.4.1 Discrimination in Academic Medicine
21.4.2 Family Responsibilities
21.4.3 Pregnancy During Residency Training and Early in One's Academic Career
21.4.4 Role Models and Mentoring
21.4.5 Regional Differences
21.4.6 Other Considerations
21.5 Conclusion
References
Further Reading
22 Institutional Review Boards: General Regulations, Institutional Obligations, and Personal Responsibility
22.1 IRB Background
22.2 Regulatory Framework
22.2.1 First: The Source of Funding or Other Support
22.2.2 Second: The Site of the Research
22.2.3 Third: Human Subjects in Certain Vulnerable Populations
22.2.4 Fourth: Research or Clinical Investigations with Regulated Products
22.3 IRB Process. 22.3.1 IRB Jurisdiction: Research with Human Subjects
22.3.1.1 Definitions
22.3.1.2 Some Items that May Not Be Under Your IRB's Jurisdiction
22.3.1.3 Quality Improvement (QI) Non‐Research versus Research
22.3.2 Types of IRB Reviews
22.3.2.1 Not Human Subjects Research
22.3.2.2 Exempt Review
22.3.2.3 Expedited Review
22.3.2.4 Full Board Review
22.4 Investigator Responsibilities in Conducting Human Subjects Research
22.4.1 Training for Investigators
22.4.2 The Responsibilities of a Research Investigator
22.4.2.1 Informed Consent
22.5 IRB Application
22.6 Related Research Committees
22.6.1 Human Use of Radioisotopes and Radiation Committee or Radiation Safety Committee
22.6.2 Institutional Biosafety Committee (IBC)
22.6.3 Other Potential Committees Could Include
22.7 Publishing and the IRB
22.8 Selected Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)
Notes
23 International Research with Human Subjects
23.1 General Overview
23.2 Regulatory and Legal Frameworks and IRB Oversight
23.2.1 IRB Registration and FederalWide Assurance
23.2.2 FDA Considerations
23.2.3 Privacy
23.2.4 Host‐Country IRB
23.3 Ethical Framework
Further Reading
24 Grants and Funding Sources
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Grant Life Cycle
24.3 Types of Funding Organizations
24.3.1 Federal Funders
24.3.2 State Agencies
24.3.3 Foundations
24.3.4 Business and Industry
24.3.5 Show Me the Money
24.4 Types of Agreements
24.5 Types of Grant Applications
24.6 Federal Grant Mechanisms
24.7 Career Timeline and NIH Mechanisms
24.8 Funding Cycle
24.9 Searchable Databases
24.9.1 Grant Databases
24.9.2 Useful Tools
24.10 Time Commitment and Infrastructure and Support. 24.10.1 Time Commitment
24.10.2 Infrastructure: Planning Within Your Organization
24.11 Post Award. 24.11.1 Award Negotiation, Management, and Setup
24.11.2 Setting Up Your Site
24.11.3 Progress Reports
24.11.4 Award Close‐out and Record Retention
Further Reading
Notes
25 Essentials of Grant Writing and Proposal Development
25.1 The Research Plan
25.1.1 Specific Aims and Hypotheses
25.1.2 Background and Significance
25.1.3 Preliminary Studies/Innovation
25.1.4 Research Design and Methods
25.1.4.1 Approach
25.1.4.2 Statistical Analysis
25.1.4.3 Recruitment and Retention
25.1.4.4 Data Monitoring and Regulatory Requirements
25.1.4.5 Collaboration
25.2 Budget and Budget Justification
25.2.1 Direct Costs
25.2.2 Indirect Costs
25.3 Grant Documents and Grant Formatting. 25.3.1 Grant Documents
25.3.2 Formatting Your Grant
25.4 Conclusions
Further Reading
Notes
26 Clinical Research Methods and Designs
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Structure of Clinical Studies. 26.2.1 Research Question
26.2.2 Background and Significance
26.2.3 Study Design
26.2.3.1 Observational Studies
Case Reports and Case Series
Ecological or Aggregate Studies
Cross‐Sectional Studies
Case‐Control Studies
Cohort Studies
26.2.3.2 Experimental Studies
26.3 Sample Size, Study Subjects, and Variables
26.4 Functional Aspects of Clinical Studies
26.5 Epilogue
References
27 Retrospective Analysis from a Chart Review: A Step‐by‐Step Guide
27.1 Stepwise Approach to Retrospective Studies
27.1.1 Define a Research Question
27.1.2 Search Literature, Create a Bibliography, and Review the Literature
27.1.3 Reevaluate the Question‐Tree and Variables
27.1.4 Obtain Institutional Review Board Approval
27.1.5 Design a Dataset and Gather the Data
27.1.6 Perform Statistical Analysis
27.1.7 Prepare the Manuscript
References
28 Designing, Planning, and Conducting Clinical Trials
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Design of Controlled Clinical Trials. 28.2.1 Definition and Design Basics
28.2.2 Ethical Considerations
28.2.3 Categorization of Controlled Clinical Trials. 28.2.3.1 Categorization by Sample Size
28.2.3.2 Categorization by Design
28.2.4 Structuring of Controlled Clinical Trials
28.2.5 Endpoints
28.2.6 Sample‐Size Estimation
28.2.7 Eligibility Criteria
28.2.8 Random Assignment and Masking
28.3 Project Management and Planning for Clinical Trial. 28.3.1 Control and Uniformity Development
28.3.2 Informed Consent
28.3.3 Logistics, Roles, and Organizational Structure
28.4 Conduct of Clinical Trials. 28.4.1 Best Practices
28.4.2 Starting the Trial
28.4.3 Data Management
28.4.4 Quality Control
28.4.5 Trial Ending
28.5 Conclusions
References
Note
29 Animal Models in Science and Research
29.1 Overview of Using Animals in Science
29.2 Evolved Complex Systems
29.3 Trans‐Species Modeling Theory
29.4 Conclusion
References
Further Reading
Note
30 How to Identify a Timely and Relevant Topic for a Literature Review
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Identifying a Relevant and Timely Topic
30.3 Narrowing the Topic
30.4 Literature Reviews and Clinical Practice
30.5 Conclusion
References
31 The Structure and Conduct of a Narrative Literature Review
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Review Team
31.3 Topic and Audience
31.4 Literature Search
31.5 Taking Notes
31.6 Type of Review
31.7 Balance
31.8 Criticism, Consistency, Objectivity
31.9 Structure
31.10 Feedback and Revision
31.11 Dissemination
Acknowledgments
References
32 A Guideline for Conducting Systematic Reviews
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Why Systematic Reviews?
32.3 A Guideline for Conducting Systematic Reviews
32.3.1 Assembling a Team of Experts
32.3.2 Finding a Gap in the Evidence Base
32.3.3 Asking a Focused Research Question/Choosing the Right Hypothesis
32.3.4 Clearly Defined Aims and Outcome Measures
32.3.5 Choosing the Right Search Terms and Databases
32.3.6 Defining Eligibility Criteria
32.3.7 Running the Searches
32.3.8 Managing Abstracts and Coding
32.3.9 Retrieving Full‐Text Versions
32.3.10 Extracting Data
32.3.11 Critically Appraising the Quality of the Primary Data
32.3.12 Analyzing the Data
32.3.13 Discussing the Findings
32.3.14 Drawing Meaningful Conclusions
32.3.15 Drafting the Research Paper
32.3.16 Assessing One's Own Performance
32.3.17 Publishing
32.4 Weaknesses of SRs
32.5 Summary and Conclusions
References
Notes
33 Clinical Management Guidelines
33.1 Introduction
33.2 How Is a Clinical Guideline Created?
33.3 Benefits and Limitations of Clinical Management Guidelines
33.3.1 Benefits. 33.3.1.1 Benefit to Patients
33.3.1.2 Benefit to Healthcare Professionals
33.3.1.3 Benefit to Healthcare Systems
33.3.2 Limitations
33.3.2.1 Harm to Patients
33.3.2.2 Harm to Healthcare Professionals
33.3.2.3 Potential Harm to Healthcare Systems
33.4 Medicolegal Implications of Clinical Guidelines
33.5 Conclusions
References
Notes
34 Why Is the History of Medicine and Biology Important?
34.1 The Value of Knowing Our History
34.2 An Illustration: Rudolf Virchow
34.3 Conclusions
References
35 Historical Articles: A Methodology Guide
35.1 General Guidelines. 35.1.1 Step 1: Identify the Subject
35.1.2 Step 2: Identify a Mentor
35.1.3 Step 3: List Potential Databases for References
35.1.3.1 Rules for Navigating Databases. Rule 1: Always attempt to obtain the full text of a reference
Rule 2: Search for references using alternative spellings of keywords
Rule 3: Verify the authenticity of non‐peer‐reviewed references
Rule 4: Do not ignore suggestions for other references provided by databases
35.1.4 Step 4: Find a Sample Article
35.1.5 Step 5: Write the First Draft
35.1.6 Step 6: Add Images to the Article
35.1.6.1 Copyrights
35.1.7 Step 7: Submit the Manuscript
35.2 Types of Historical Articles. 35.2.1 Biographical Articles
35.2.1.1 Classic Biographical Articles
35.2.1.2 Obituaries
35.2.1.3 Commemorations
35.2.1.4 Autobiographical Articles
35.2.2 Articles on Materia Medica
35.2.3 Translations
35.2.4 Articles on the History of Science
35.2.4.1 Cross‐Sectional Historical Articles
35.2.4.2 Longitudinal Historical Articles
35.2.5 Corrective Historical Articles
References
36 An Introduction to Academic Publishing
36.1 Introduction
36.2 Manuscript Submission
36.3 Peer‐Review Process
36.3.1 Manuscript Revision and Resubmission
36.4 After the Manuscript is Accepted for Publication
36.4.1 Publishing Agreement and Other Pre‐publication Forms
36.4.2 Copyediting
36.4.3 Typesetting, Page Proofs, and Proofreading
36.5 Final Publication
37 Various Types of Scientific Articles
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Primary or Original‐Research Articles
37.3 Secondary or Review Articles
37.4 Special Articles
37.5 Tertiary Literature
37.6 Gray Literature
37.7 Conclusions
References
38 Authorship
38.1 Era of Collaborative Research
38.2 Giving Credit to Collaborators
38.3 Assigning Authorship
38.4 Corresponding Author
38.5 Ethical Responsibility
38.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Further Reading
Note
39 Recognition, Reward, and Responsibility: Why the Authorship of Scientific Papers Matters
39.1 Why Does the Authorship of Scientific Papers Matter?
39.2 What Is Authorship?
39.3 What Guidelines on Authorship Are Available?
39.4 Solutions to Authorship Problems
39.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
Note
40 Biomedical Journals: Scientific Quality, Reputation, and Impact Factor
40.1 Introduction
40.2 The Journal Impact Factor
40.3 Alternatives to the Journal Impact Factor
40.4 Caveats to Interpreting the Journal Impact Factor
40.4.1 Journal Impact Factors Should Not Be Compared Across Disciplines
40.4.2 Journal Impact Factors Should Not Be Used to Evaluate Individual Journal Articles
40.4.3 Journal Impact Factors Should Not Be Used to Evaluate Researchers
40.5 Conclusions
References
Notes
41 Scholarly Open‐Access Publishing
41.1 Introduction
41.2 Monitoring Scholarly Open‐Access Publishing
41.3 Predatory Publishers
41.4 Discovering Open‐Access Publications
41.5 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Publishing in Open‐Access Journals
41.6 The Future of Open‐Access Publishing
41.7 Why Open‐Access Publications Are Gaining in Appreciation
41.8 How to Recognize Predatory Journals
References
Notes
42 How to Find a Suitable Journal for Your Manuscript
42.1 Introduction
42.2 Initially Deciding on Which Journal to Publish
42.3 Factors to Consider in Selecting a Suitable Journal. 42.3.1 Audience
42.3.2 Fitness Factor: Journal Scope and Aim
42.3.3 Journal's Publishing Trend and Priorities
42.3.4 Journal Impact, Prestige, and Reputation
42.3.5 Expert Opinions
42.3.6 Editorial Office Standards and Efficiency
42.3.7 Time, Publishing, and Distribution Factors
42.3.8 Costs
42.3.9 Difficulty of Acceptance
42.3.10 Abstract and Indexing Services
42.3.11 Language Factor
42.3.12 Other Factors
42.4 Recommended Approach
42.5 Contacting the Editorial Office
42.6 Acceptable Format for Manuscripts
42.7 Handling a Negative Editorial Decision
42.8 The Possible Outcomes of Submitting to an Unsuitable Journal
References
43 Scientific Peer Review
43.1 Introduction
43.2 History of Peer Review
43.3 Process
43.4 Criticism
References
44 How to Reply to Editors and Reviewers
44.1 You Receive the Decision Letter…
44.2 Context
44.3 Types of Decision Letters and How to Answer
44.3.1 Rejection
44.3.2 Revise and Resubmit (R&R)
44.4 After You Resubmitted
44.5 Conclusion
References
Note
45 Causes of Manuscript Rejection and How to Handle a Rejected Manuscript
45.1 Introduction
45.2 Dealing with the Common Causes of Rejection
45.2.1 Journal's Specific Requirements Are Not Followed
45.2.2 Author Fails to Revise and Resubmit a Manuscript
45.2.3 Subject Matter Is Outside Journal's Scope
45.2.4 The Manuscript Is Poorly Written
45.2.5 The Study Design Has a Serious Flaw
45.2.6 The Manuscript Has an Inadequate Description of the Methods
45.2.7 The Results Are Not Correctly Interpreted
45.2.8 Plagiarism or Duplication Is Involved in the Manuscript
45.3 Summary
45.4 Conclusions
References
46 Resources and Databases
46.1 Reference Search Using Textbooks
46.2 Reference Search Using Websites
46.2.1 Medical Databases
46.2.2 Keywords
46.2.3 Search Operators and Advanced Search
46.2.4 Retrieved Entries or Search Results
46.3 Other Sources
Further Reading
Notes
47 Research: A Construct Defined by Context
47.1 Introduction
47.2 Research Literacy: A Mindset and Skillset for Self‐Critical Systematic Inquiry
47.3 Defining and Planning the Research Context: The Research Proposal
47.4 Evaluating Research Resources: Self‐Reflective Research Practice
47.5 Meaning and Context: A Self‐Critical Perspective
References
48 Critical Evaluation of the Clinical Literature
48.1 Introduction
48.2 Critical Appraisal of a Scientific Article
48.3 Is the Study Valid?
48.3.1 Research Question. 48.3.1.1 Relevance
48.3.1.2 Scientific Contribution
48.3.1.3 Pertinence to the Study Design
48.3.1.4 Structure
48.3.2 Bias
48.3.2.1 Selection Bias
48.3.2.2 Performance Bias
48.3.2.3 Detection Bias
48.3.2.4 Attrition Bias
48.3.2.5 Reporting Bias
48.3.2.6 Other Biases
Foreign Language Bias
Learning Curve Bias
Inappropriate Statistics Bias
Significance Bias
Ecologic Bias
Surrogate Variable Bias
“Fishing Expedition” Bias
Publication Bias
Conflict of Interest Bias
48.3.3 The Grading System for Study Quality
48.4 What Are the Results? Assessing and Analyzing Results of a Study
48.4.1 Variables
48.4.2 Types of Data and Scales of Measurement
48.4.2.1 Categorical Data
48.4.2.2 Numerical Data
48.4.3 Descriptive Statistics
48.4.4 Inferential Statistics. 48.4.4.1 Sample and Population
48.4.4.2 Standard Error of the Mean (SEM)
48.4.4.3 Confidence Interval (CI)
48.4.4.4 Hypothesis Testing
Step 1: State the hypothesis
Step 2: Set the criteria for a decision
Step 3: Choice of the statistical test
Step 4: Make a decision
48.5 Are the Results Useful? From Research to Clinical Practice
48.5.1 Clinical versus Statistical Significance
48.5.2 External Validity
48.6 The Research World
48.6.1 The Peer‐Review Process
48.6.2 Science Citation Index
48.6.3 Impact Factor
48.6.4 Bibliographic Databases
48.6.5 Conflict of Interest
48.6.6 The Role of Clinical Practice Guidelines
References
Notes
49 Writing for Your Audience
49.1 Introduction
49.2 Who Is Your Audience?
49.3 Where Is Your Audience?
49.4 How Does Your Audience Inform Your Writing Style?
50 Principles of Writing a Good Scholarly Paper
50.1 What Is a Good Paper?
50.1.1 Simplicity
50.1.2 Focus
50.1.3 Punctuation and Grammar
50.1.4 Structure and Style
50.2 Order of Writing
50.3 Draft, Draft, and Redraft
50.4 Conclusions
Further Reading
51 Tips for Scientific Writing
51.1 Professional Publications
51.2 Manuscripts Require Repeated Revision Before They Are Submitted for Publication
51.3 Establish the Right Mindset before You Write
51.4 Remember Who Your Readers Are
51.5 How to Convey Your Findings
51.6 Keeping “Discussion” Sections under Control
52 Perspectives of a Medical Editor
52.1 Everyone Needs an Editor
52.2 When Planning Your Foray into Academic Writing, Keep It Simple
52.3 Learn to Use a Good Reference Software Program
52.4 Become Your Own Line Editor
52.5 Minimize Acronyms
52.6 Beware of Predatory Journals
52.7 Check Your Numbers – Then Check Them Again
52.8 Fully Involve Your Co‐authors
52.9 Observe the Copyright Laws
52.10 Once Your Accepted Article Is in Production, Check Your Proof Carefully
References
53 The Art of Organizing Your Research Content
53.1 The Art of Organizing Your Research Content
53.2 The Outline
53.3 Organization by Section
53.3.1 The Title Page or Cover Page
53.3.2 The Table of Contents
53.3.3 The Abstract
53.3.4 The Introduction
53.3.4.1 Research Question
53.3.5 Literature Review
53.3.6 The Materials and Methods
53.3.7 The Results (or Findings)
53.3.8 The Discussion
53.3.9 The Conclusions
53.3.10 The References
53.3.11 Other Sections
53.4 How to Approach Content Organization
References
Note
54 Economy of Writing: How to Write Technical Content
54.1 Planning
54.2 The Process
54.2.1 Title
54.2.2 Abstract
54.2.3 Keywords
54.2.4 The Introduction
54.2.5 Materials and Methods
54.2.6 Results
54.2.7 Discussion
54.2.8 Conclusion
54.2.9 Bullet or Take‐Home Points
54.3 General Writing Issues. 54.3.1 Referencing
54.3.1.1 Don't Be a Reference Snob
54.3.1.2 Exceptions to the Rule
54.3.1.3 The Reference Manager
54.3.2 Elements of Style
54.3.3 Elements of Content
54.3.4 Color Space
54.3.5 Some Common Statistical Faux Pas
54.3.5.1 Extrapolating Beyond Your Data
54.3.5.2 The Absence of the Statistical Process
54.3.5.3 Selecting the Wrong Statistic
54.3.5.4 Casting the Net Wide and Far
54.3.5.5 The Mathematical Coupling Error
54.3.5.6 Misinterpreting the Meaning of p‐Values
54.3.5.7 Using SEM Instead of SD
54.3.6 Gail's Fallacy
54.3.7 Authorship Contribution
54.4 Epilogue
Notes
55 Writing an Effective Title and Abstract
55.1 An Effective Title
55.2 Preparation of the Abstract
55.2.1 When to Prepare the Abstract/Starting to Write
55.3 Features of a Quality Abstract. 55.3.1 General Features
55.3.2 The Structured Abstract
55.3.3 Parts of the Abstract (for Original Research Articles)
55.4 Editing of the Abstract. 55.4.1 How to Edit for Brevity
55.4.2 Review by Outside Authors
55.4.3 Submission
Further Reading
56 Writing the Results Section
56.1 Introduction
56.2 Content
56.3 Language, Style, and Organization
56.4 Accuracy of Findings and Presentation of Data
56.5 Use of Tables and Illustrative Materials
References
57 Writing the Discussion Section for Original Research Articles
57.1 Introduction
57.2 Purpose of a Discussion Section
57.3 What and How to Discuss
57.3.1 Main Study Findings
57.3.2 Expectations and Literature
57.3.3 Strengths and Limitations
57.3.4 Further Studies
57.3.5 Take‐Home Message
References
58 Reporting a Clinical Trial
58.1 Evidence‐Based Medicine
58.2 Quality of Clinical Trials
58.3 Writing Your Manuscript
58.3.1 Title
58.3.2 Abstract
58.3.3 Introduction Section
58.3.4 Patients and Methods Section
58.3.5 Statistical Analysis
58.3.6 Results Section
58.3.7 Discussion Section
References
Notes
59 Publishing a Case Report
59.1 Introduction
59.2 Clinicians Are Rich Sources for Unique Medical and Surgical Cases
59.2.1 Collaboration
59.2.2 Using the Literature to Help with Individual Patients
59.3 The Importance of Publishing Case Reports
59.4 When Should a Case Report Be Written?
59.5 If You Publish Your Case Report, Who Will Be Interested in Reading It?
59.6 Do You Have Sufficient Material for a Case Report?
59.7 Choosing the Right Journal. 59.7.1 Traditional or Open Access?
59.7.2 Journal Scope and Readership
59.8 Ethical Considerations: Patient and Institution
59.8.1 Principles
59.8.2 Why Do We Need Ethics?
59.8.3 Ethical Considerations in Clinical Research. 59.8.3.1 Patients
59.8.3.2 The Institution
59.8.3.3 Experimental Animals
59.8.4 Ethical Issues in Publishing Case Reports
59.9 From Case Studies to Large‐Scale Clinical Studies
References
60 Writing Editorials
60.1 What Is an Editorial?
60.2 Who Can Write an Editorial?
60.3 Contents of a Typical Editorial
60.3.1 Title and Introduction
60.3.2 Discussion and Analysis
60.3.3 The Final Message
60.4 Key Point for Writing Editorials
References
61 Writing a Letter to the Editor
61.1 What Is a Letter to the Editor?
61.2 How to Approach Writing a Letter to the Editor
61.3 What Happens When Your Letter Has Been Accepted?
Further Reading
62 Writing a Book Review
62.1 Introduction
62.2 Strategy for Crafting Book Reviews
62.3 Negative and Positive Book Reviews
62.4 Editorial Guidance
62.4.1 Unsolicited Book Reviews
62.5 Checklist for Writing a Book Review
References
63 Use of Illustrations and Figures to Enhance Scientific Presentations and Publications
63.1 Introduction
63.2 What Is Medical Illustration?
63.3 Types of Illustrations
63.4 Illustrations and Research Design
63.5 Sourcing Illustrations
63.6 Collaborations
63.7 Conclusion
Further Reading
64 How to Prepare Supplemental Materials for Scientific Publications
64.1 Introduction
64.2 Definition of Supplemental Materials
64.3 How to Decide What Is Supplementary
64.4 Types of Supplemental Materials and How to Prepare Them
64.5 Online Storage and Access
64.6 Conclusions
References
65 Reference‐Management Software
65.1 Introduction
65.2 Situational Example
65.3 What Is on the Market?
65.4 What to Expect from an RMS
65.5 Working in Collaboration and Sharing
65.6 In‐Computer versus Cloud
65.7 All Is Well? What Does the Future Hold?
References
Further Reading
Notes
66 Basic Statistical Analysis for Original Studies
66.1 Introduction
66.2 Measures of Central Tendencies
66.3 Types of Data
66.4 Distribution of Data
66.4.1 Gaussian (Normal) Distribution
66.4.2 Non‐Gaussian Distribution
66.5 Transformation (Normalization) of Data
66.6 Measures of Variability
66.6.1 Standard Deviation (SD)
66.6.2 Standard Error of Mean (SEM)
66.6.3 Confidence Interval (CI)
66.7 P‐Value and its Importance
66.7.1 Errors
66.7.1.1 Type I Error (False Positive)
66.7.1.2 Type II Error (False Negative)
66.8 Outliers
66.9 Various Statistical Tests and their Uses
66.9.1 Parametric Tests
66.9.2 Student's t‐Test
66.9.3 One‐Way ANOVA
66.9.3.1 Post‐hoc Tests
66.9.3.2 Selection of the Appropriate Post‐hoc Test
66.9.4 Two‐Way ANOVA
66.10 Nonparametric Tests
66.10.1 Chi‐square Goodness‐of‐Fit Test
66.10.1.1 Applications
66.10.1.2 Preparation of a 2 × 2 Table
66.10.2 Wilcoxon Matched Pairs Signed Ranks Test
66.10.3 Mann‐Whitney Test
66.10.4 Friedman Test
66.10.5 Kruskal‐Wallis Test
66.11 Statistical Power
66.12 Determination of Sample Size
66.13 Establishing a Statistical Relationship. 66.13.1 Correlation
66.13.2 Regression
66.14 Interpretation of Interactions
66.15 Determination of Statistical Causality
66.16 Adjustment of Covariates in Clinical Trials
66.17 Statistical Software Packages
Acknowledgments
References
Further Reading
67 An Overview of Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis
67.1 Systematic Reviews and Meta‐Analyses
67.2 Structure of a Meta‐Analysis
67.2.1 Title
67.2.2 Structured Abstract
67.2.3 Introduction
67.2.4 Methods
67.2.5 Results
67.2.6 Discussion
67.3 Role of Meta‐Analysis in Evidence‐Based Medicine
67.4 Critical Appraisal Sheet for Systematic Reviews
References
Notes
68 An Introduction to Meta‐Analysis
68.1 Introduction
68.2 Step One: Frame a Study Question. 68.2.1 How to Select Questions
68.2.2 PICO Format
68.2.3 Too Narrow Versus Too Broad Meta‐Analysis
68.3 Step Two: Search the Literature and Conduct Initial Screening
68.3.1 Use Controlled Vocabulary
68.3.2 Use Specialized Databases
68.3.3 Use Boolean Logic‐Based Searching of Literature
68.3.4 Use Validated Search Filters
68.3.5 Understand Gray Literature and Hand Search
68.3.6 Need for Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria
68.4 Step Three: Conduct Risk of Bias Appraisal of Full Texts
68.5 Step Four: Abstract Data from Individual Studies
68.5.1 Outcomes
68.5.2 How to Abstract Data for Binary Outcomes and Continuous Outcomes
68.6 Step Five: Assess Whether the Studies Are Homogeneous
68.6.1 What Happens When the Test of Homogeneity Fails
68.7 Step Six: Conduct Fixed Effects or Random Effects Meta‐analysis and Perform Sensitivity Analyses
68.7.1 Example: Do White Responds Better than Blacks to ACE Inhibitors for the Treatment of Hypertension?
68.8 Conclusion
References
Notes
69 Missing Values: How to Treat Them Appropriately
69.1 Introduction
69.2 Types of Missingness
69.2.1 Missing Completely at Random (MCAR)
69.2.2 Missing at Random (MAR)
69.2.3 Missing Not at Random
69.3 Linear Regression Models
69.3.1 Casewise Deletion
69.3.2 Pairwise Deletion
69.3.3 Mean Substitution
69.3.4 Regression Substitution (Imputation by Least Squares)
69.4 Modern Approaches to the Problem of Missing Data
69.4.1 Maximum Likelihood
69.4.2 Expectation–Maximization (EM)
69.4.2.1 An Example
69.4.3 Multiple Imputation
References
Notes
70 Essentials of Interviewing for Prospective Medical Students and Residents
70.1 The Importance of a Great Interview
70.2 General Interview Skills
70.3 Conversational Ability
70.4 Advocating for Oneself
70.5 A Note on Honesty
70.6 Explaining Weaknesses on an Application
70.7 Preparation: A Means of Reducing Anxiety
70.8 Put Your Best Foot Forward: Attire and Behavior
70.9 Interview Expenses
70.10 Scheduling the Interview
70.11 Learn about the Program
70.12 Pre‐Interview Contact
70.13 The Interview Day
70.14 Post‐Interview Contact
70.14.1 Communication from the Applicant to the Program
70.14.2 Communication from the Program to the Applicant
70.15 Key Questions to Ask and Be Asked
Further Reading
Notes
71 Professional and Academic Societies and Meetings
71.1 Academic Societies
71.2 Professional Societies
71.3 Career Benefits. 71.3.1 Research Presentations
71.3.2 Workshops and Training Opportunities
71.3.3 Grants and Travel
71.3.4 Recognition
71.3.5 Networking
71.4 Getting Started
71.5 Conclusions
References
72 Getting the Most from Attending a Professional Meeting
72.1 Introduction
72.2 Choosing a Meeting
72.3 Budgeting for Travel and Housing
72.4 Surveying the Sessions
72.5 Visiting Vendors/Publishers
72.6 Presenting Your Work or Research
72.7 Getting Involved
72.8 Follow‐Up and Follow‐Through
References
73 Finding Research Opportunities as a Medical Student
73.1 Why Pursue Research as a Medical Student?
73.2 A Disclaimer: What Benefit Does Research Bring to the Medical Student?
73.3 Background for the Student‐Researcher
73.3.1 Have a Research Goal and Time Frame in Mind
73.3.2 Quality Research Production
73.3.3 Student Protection and Ethical Consideration
73.4 How to Find Research Opportunities as a Medical Student
73.4.1 Basic Science Research
73.4.2 Clinical Science Research
73.4.3 Choosing a Viable Project
73.4.4 The Literature Review
73.4.5 Goal Reevaluation
73.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
74 A Guide to Writing a Curriculum Vitae
74.1 Introduction
74.2 What Should Be Included in the CV?
74.3 Cover Page
74.4 Personal Data
74.5 Education
74.6 Professional Experience
74.7 Awards and Grants
74.8 Publications
74.9 Additional Categories
74.10 Formatting/Layout
74.11 Conclusion
References
Note
Index
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