Origin and Evolution of the Universe
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Оглавление
Группа авторов. Origin and Evolution of the Universe
Contents
Preface
Editors
Authors
Chapter 1. The Origin of the Universe
Introduction
Expansion of the Universe
Cosmic Background
Light Element Abundances
Horizons
Acoustic Scale
Current Research. Dark Matter
Dark Energy
Standard Model of Cosmology
Future of the Universe
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2. The Origin and Evolution of Galaxies
Introduction
What is a Galaxy?
The Shapes of Galaxies
The Ages of Stars in Galaxies
Witnessing the Origin of Different Galaxy Types
Galaxies and Giant Black Holes
How Did Galaxies Form? — The Basics
The Star Formation Histories of Galaxies
The Frontier of Galaxy Evolution
Further Reading
Chapter 3. The Origin and Evolution of the Chemical Elements. Virginia Trimble. Introduction
Historical Overview
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
Element Synthesis in Stars
The Major Burning Phases — Hydrogen
The Major Burning Phases — Helium
The Major Burning Phases — Heavy Elements
On Beyond Iron
A Few Loose Ends
Galactic Chemical Evolution
Simple Models and the G-Dwarf Problem
Habitable Planets and the Future
References
Chapter 4. Stellar Explosions, Neutron Stars, and Black Holes. Alexei V. Filippenko. Introduction
Stellar Explosions — Celestial Fireworks
How to Find a Supernova
Supernova Classification
Explosion Mechanism — Type Ia Supernovae
Explosion Mechanism — Type II, Type Ib, and Type Ic Supernovae
Supernova 1987A — A Gift from the Heavens
Testing the Theories
Neutrinos from Hell
Gamma-Ray Bursts
Mapping the Universe’s Expansion History
Neutron Stars
Observational Evidence
Millisecond and Binary Pulsars
Black Holes
Fun Facts about Black Holes
Detecting Black Holes
Myths about Black Holes
Conclusion
Further Reading. General Overview of Astronomy
Stellar Evolution and White Dwarfs
Supernovae
Neutron Stars and Pulsars
Black Holes
Interesting Web Sites on the Internet
Chapter 5. The Origin of Stars and Planets
Introduction
Star Formation in Molecular Clouds
Molecular Clouds — The Birthplace of Stars
The Formation of Molecular Cloud Cores
Molecular Cloud Cores — Initial Conditions for Collapse
Protostellar Collapse
Protostellar Radiation
The Protostellar to Stellar Transition
The Stellar Initial Mass Function
Summary of the Star-Formation Paradigm
Circumstellar Disks and Pre-Main-Sequence Stars
Radiation from Circumstellar Disks
Gravitational Instabilities
Realistic Simulations of Star/Disk Systems
Viscous Evolution of Circumstellar Disks
Summary of Disk Processes
Planet Formation
Formation of Planets by Accumulation
Formation of Planets by Gravitational Instability
Summary and Discussion
References
Chapter 6. The Origin and Evolution of Life in the Universe
Introduction
Life on Earth
The Search for Life Beyond the Earth
Exoplanets
Complex life and Technology in the Universe
Its life, Jim, but not as we know it
References
Glossary
Index
Отрывок из книги
Second Edition
Origin and Evolution of the Universe
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Consider now an observer 400,000 years after the Big Bang. The distance to the horizon is 3 ct, or about 1.2 million light years. This observer (really just a cloud of gas) will try to get in thermal equilibrium with the region it can see, which extends to a 1.2-million-light year radius. If thermal equilibrium can be achieved, a patch of constant temperature 1.2 million light years in radius can be created. This patch will grow to 1 billion light-years in radius as the Universe expands from 400,000 years after the Big Bang until now. But our horizon now is 40 billion light years in radius. Thus, the constant temperature patch subtends an angle of only 1/40 radian, which is only three times the diameter of the full moon. But we see an almost constant temperature over the entire sky. For a universe to be as isotropic (identical appearance in all directions) as the one we live in requires either very special initial conditions or a mechanism to force the temperature to be constant over the entire observable Universe.
The Big Bang model described above is in good agreement with the observed Universe, but it required very special initial conditions such as the following to explain two different facts:
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