Оглавление
Группа авторов. Encyclopedia of Glass Science, Technology, History, and Culture
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Encyclopedia of Glass Science, Technology, History, and Culture
List of Contributors
Preface
Select Additional Reading. The Vitreous State
Glass Systems and Properties
Compilations of Glass Data
Glass Art
General Introduction
1 A Historical Random Walk. 1.1 The Glass Age
1.2 An Economic Forerunner
1.3 A Multifaceted Material
1.4 The Silica Paradoxes. 1.4.1 Biogenic Silica vs. Flint
1.4.2 A Quantum‐Chemical Factory: The Production of Silica Sand
2 Some Basic Concepts of Glass Science. 2.1 From Metastability to Relaxation
2.2 Relaxation: Phenomenological Aspects
2.3 The Glass Transition. 2.3.1 Standard Glass‐Transition Temperature
2.3.2 Volume Effects
2.3.3 Frequency Dependence
2.3.4 An Irreversible Transition
2.3.5 The Case of Plastic Crystals
2.3.6 Maxwell Model
2.4 Configurational Properties. 2.4.1 Equivalence of Relaxation Kinetics
2.4.2 Vibrational vs. Configurational Relaxation
2.4.3 A Microscopic Picture
2.4.4 Compressibility and Permanent Compaction
2.4.5 Kauzmann Paradox
2.4.6 Potential Energy Landscape: Ideal Glass and Fragility
References
Appendix A
Section I. Glassmaking
1.1 Glass Production: An Overview
1 Introduction
2 Industrially Manufactured Glasses. 2.1 Properties of Manufactured Glasses in General
2.2 Classification of Glasses by Commercial Branches
3 Process‐controlling Properties
3.1 Viscosity
3.2 Liquidus Temperatures
3.3 Liquid–liquid unmixing
4 Glass Composition – its Relevance to Glass Properties. 4.1 Property Optimization
4.2 Elastic Properties
4.3 Thermal Expansion Coefficient
4.4 Chemical Durability
5 Perspectives
References
Note
1.2 Raw Materials for Glassmaking: Properties and Constraints
1 Introduction
2 Raw‐material Specifications. 2.1 The Specificity of Raw Materials
2.2 Grain Size
2.3 Operational Parameters
3 From Raw Materials to Melt. 3.1 Effects of Digestion Kinetics
3.2 Quantification of Heavy Minerals
3.3 Impurity‐related and Other Melting Defects
3.4 The Problem of Dolomite Decrepitation
4 Special Raw Materials. 4.1 Sodium Carbonate
4.2 Raw Materials with Very Low Iron Contents
4.3 Globetrotting Raw Materials
5 Perspectives
References
Note
1.3 Fusion of Glass
1 Introduction
2 Overview of Industrial Processes
Preparation (at room temperature)
Glass melting (at high temperatures)
3 Batch Preparation. 3.1 Raw Materials
3.2 Calculation of Batch Composition
4 The Conversion of Batch into Melt. 4.1 The Basic Importance of Convection
4.2 The Chemistry of Melting
4.3 Sand Dissolution
5 Fining, Refining, Homogenization. 5.1 Physical Fining
5.2 Chemical Fining
5.3 Homogeneization
6 Energetics of Glass Melting
7 Perspectives
Appendix
References
Note
1.4 Primary Fabrication of Flat Glass
1 Introduction
2 Overview
3 Updraw Processes. 3.1 Fourcault
3.2 Colburn
3.3 Pittsburg Pennvernon
3.4 Asahi
4 Roll Out Process
5 Float Process. 5.1 Principle
5.2 Float Bath
5.3 Thinner (Top‐Roll Process) and Thicker (Fender Process) Glass Ribbons
5.4 A Complex Industrial Problem
5.5 Trends in Float Production
6 Downdraw Processes. 6.1 Slot Downdraw
6.2 Fusion Downdraw
7 Perspectives
References
Note
1.5 Fabrication of Glass Containers
1 Introduction
2 Principles of Glass‐Container Forming
2.1 Heat Management in Glass‐Container Forming
2.2 Interface Interactions in Glass‐Container Forming
2.3 Deformation Rates in Glass‐Container Forming
3 Glass‐Container Forming Processes. 3.1 Glass Composition
3.2 Blow & Blow Process
3.3 Press & Blow Process
3.4 Narrow‐Neck & Blow Process
4 Making of the Gob: Forehearth, Feeder, and Shears
5 IS‐Forming Machine. 5.1 General Principles
5.2 The IS‐Machine Families
5.3 Delivery Equipment
5.4 Blank‐Side Forming
5.5 Invert and Reheat
5.6 Blow‐Mold Forming
6 Hot‐End Handling, Hot‐End Coating, and Annealing
7 Cold‐End Handling and Inspection
8 Perspectives
References
Note
1.6 Continuous Glass Fibers for Reinforcement
1 Introduction
2 Commercial Glass Fibers. 2.1 History of Fiberglass Development and Glass Chemistry. 2.1.1 Fiber Types
2.1.2 E‐Glass
2.1.3 C‐Glass
2.1.4 AR‐Glass
2.1.5 D‐Glass
2.1.6 S‐Glass
2.1.7 R‐Glass
2.1.8 Glass Type Summary
2.2 Major Fiberglass Producers
3 Manufacturing of Glass Fibers. 3.1 Primary and Secondary Processes
3.2 Glass Melting and Fining
3.3 Fiber Forming
3.4 The Role of Sizing/Binder in Glass Fiber Products
4 Markets and Applications. 4.1 Global Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composite Markets
4.2 Emerging GRP Composite Markets
5 Perspectives
References
Note
1.7 Simulation in Glass Processes
1 Introduction
2 A Brief Overview
3 Fundamental Phenomena, Governing Equations, and Simulation Tools. 3.1 Glass as a Continuum
3.2 Transport by Advection and Diffusion
3.3 Turbulence
3.4 Radiative Heat Transfer
3.5 Discretization Methods, Solution Algorithms, and Model Specifications. 3.5.1 Finite Element and Control Volume Formulations
3.5.2 Physical and Numerical Specifications
4 Simulations in Glass Manufacturing Processes: A Few Examples. 4.1 Fundamental Studies
4.2 Glass Melting Furnace. 4.2.1 Models
4.2.2 Interacting Zones
4.2.3 Post‐processing Assessments
4.2.4 Particle Tracking
5 Simulation Data Management
6 Perspectives
4.2 Acknowledgements
References
Note
Section II. Structure
Reference
2.1 Basic Concepts of Network Glass Structure
1 Introduction
List of Acronyms
2 The Zachariasen–Warren Random Network Model
3 Silica – The Archetypal Glass
4 Microcrystalline Models
5 Modifiers and Non‐Bridging Oxygens. 5.1 The Role of Network Modifiers
5.2 The Modified Random Network Model
5.3 Network Connectivity and Q‐species
5.4 Change of Coordination Number
6 Intermediate‐Range Order
7 Chalcogenide Glasses
8 Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
Note
2.2 Structural Probes of Glass
1 Introduction
Acronyms
2 Diffraction (Scattering)
2.1 X‐ray and Neutron
2.2 Isotope‐substituted Neutron Diffraction
2.3 DAXS and AWAXS
3 X‐ray Absorption Techniques. 3.1 General Features
3.2 EXAFS and XANES
4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
5 Vibrational Spectroscopies. 5.1 General Features
5.2 Infrared Spectroscopy
5.3 Raman Spectroscopy
5.4 Brillouin Spectroscopy
6 Other Techniques
6.1 Mössbauer Spectroscopy
6.2 X‐ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
6.3 Ultra Violet/Visible Spectroscopy
7 Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
Note
2.3 Microstructure Analysis of Glasses and Glass Ceramics
1 Introduction
2 Acronyms
2 Scanning Electron Microscopy. 2.1 Image Formation
2.2 Chemical Analyses
2.3 Application to Glass Ceramics
3 Transmission Electron Microscopy. 3.1 Conventional Observations
3.2 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy
3.3 Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy
4 Scanning Probe Microscopy
5 X‐Ray Microscopy
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
2.4 Short‐range Structure and Order in Oxide Glasses
1 Introduction
2 One‐component Oxide Glass Formers
3 Modifying the Network: Silicates and Phosphates
4 Modifying the Network: Borates and Germanates
5 Network Cations in Aluminosilicates
6 Short‐range Order and Modifier Cations
7 Interactions of Network Modifiers and Network Order/Disorder. 7.1 Order and Disorder of Bridging and Non‐bridging Oxygens
7.2 Qn Speciation
7.3 Order/Disorder in Network Linkages
8 Perspectives
References
Note
2.5 The Extended Structure of Glass
1 Introduction
Acronyms
2 Extended Structure of Glass: The Need for a Multiplicity of Techniques
3 Structural Order over Different Length Scales. 3.1 Network Glasses
3.2 Metallic Glasses
4 Structural Aspects of Density Fluctuations
4.1 Non‐ergodicity and Elastic Moduli
4.2 Polyamorphism and Phase Separation
5 Models of Glass Structure. 5.1 Conceptual Models
5.2 Computational Modeling of Extended Structure
6 Structural Heterogeneity in Glasses
7 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
2.6 Structure of Chemically Complex Silicate Systems
1 Introduction
2 Glass and Melt Polymerization
2.1 SiO2
2.2 Al2O3
3 Metal Oxide–SiO2 Systems
3.1 General Remarks
3.2 Structure
3.3 Speciation, Cation Mixing, and Ordering
4 Aluminum and Aluminate
4.1 Al3+ and Qn‐Species
5 Ferric and Ferrous Iron
5.1 Redox Relations of Iron
5.2 Structural Roles of Fe3+ and Fe2+
5.3 Structure–Property Relations
6 Minor Components in Silicate Glasses and Melts
6.1 Phosphorus Substitution for Silicon
6.2 Multiple Roles of Ti4+
7 Perspectives
References
Note
2.7 Topological Constraint Theory of Inorganic Glasses
1 Introduction
List of Acronyms
2 Concepts of the Topological Constraint Theory
2.1 Network Chemistry. 2.1.1 Composition of an Atomic Network
2.1.2 Chemical Order and Disorder
2.1.3 Atomic Interactions and Chemical Bonds
2.1.4 Structural Units in Chemically Ordered Networks
2.2 Network Topology
2.3 Bond Constraints
2.4 Degrees of Freedom and the Network Deformation Modes
3 Polyhedral Constraint Theory
3.1 Rigidity of Polyhedral Structural Units
3.2 Existence of Topologically Disordered (d = 3) Networks
3.3 Glass‐forming Ability
3.3.1 Glass‐forming Ability and the Condition of Isostaticity (f = 0)
3.3.2 Glass Formation Under Hypostatic (f> 0) Conditions
3.3.3 Glass Formation Under Hyperstatic (f< 0) Conditions
3.4 Existence of Super‐Structural Units
4 The Bond Constraint Theory
4.1 Self‐organization and the Intermediate Phase
4.2 Non‐bridging Vertices (or Singly Coordinated Atoms)
4.3 Glass‐forming Ability in Chalcogenide Systems. 4.3.1 Ge–Se System
4.3.2 As–Se System
4.4 Composition Variation of Properties in Glass‐forming Systems
5 Temperature‐Dependent Constraints. 5.1 The Influence of Thermal Energy
5.2 Extension of the Topological Constraint Theory to Supercooled Liquids
5.3 Temperature – Scaling of Viscosity (η) and the MYEGA Equation
5.4 The Composition Variation of the Glass Transition Temperature, Tg
5.5 Fragility (or Rigidity) Transitions and Iso‐Tg Regimes
6 Topological Constraint Theory, Thermodynamics, and the Potential Energy Landscape Formalism
7 Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
Note
2.8 Atomistic Simulations of Glass Structure and Properties
1 Introduction
2 Basics of Numerical Simulations. 2.1 General Features
2.2 The Importance of Interatomic Potentials
3 Monte‐Carlo Simulations. 3.1 Principles of the Method
3.2 Reverse Monte‐Carlo Simulations
4 Molecular Dynamics Simulations
5 Modeling: Simulation Techniques and Examples. 5.1 Overall Glass Structure
5.2 Short‐range Order
5.3 Medium‐range Order
5.4 Structure‐related Properties
5.5 Experimental and Computational Complementarity
6 Perspectives
References
Note
2.9 First‐principles Simulations of Glass‐formers
1 Introduction
2 Ab Initio Simulations. 2.1 General Principles
2.2 Density Functional Theory
2.3 Computational Limitations
3 Structural Properties
4 Vibrational Properties
5 Calculations of NMR Spectra
6 Perspectives
References
Note
Section III. Physics of Glass
3.1 Glass Formation
1 Introduction
Acronyms
2 Glass and Relaxation
3 Kinetic Theory of Vitrification
4 The Viscosity Factor
5 Structural Factors
6 Glass‐Liquid Transition
7 Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
Note
3.2 Thermodynamics of Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Basics of Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics
3 Supercooled Liquids
4 Glass as a Nonequilibrium Substance
5 Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics of the Glass Transition
6 Physical Aging
7 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
3.3 The Glass Transition and the Entropy Crisis
1 Introduction
2 Important Concepts and Theories. 2.1 Fast and Slow Modes
2.2 What Is a Glass?
2.3 Adam–Gibbs Theory
2.4 Free Volume Theory
2.5 Random First‐Order Theory
2.6 Mode‐Coupling Theory
3 Nonsingular Glass Phenomenology. 3.1 The Restricted Ensemble
3.2 Absence of a Singularity in Laboratory Glasses
3.3 Ideal Glass: Analytic Continuation
4 Nonequilibrium Formulation: Brief Review
4.1 Concept of a Nonequilibrium State and of Internal Equilibrium. 4.1.1 An Isolated Body
4.1.2 An Interacting Body
4.1.3 A Simple Example for an Internal Variable
4.2 Gibbs Free Energy of an Interacting System
4.3 Thermodynamic Forces for Relaxation
5 Nonequilibrium Relaxation in Internal Equilibrium. 5.1 Thermodynamic Relaxation
5.1.1 Heuristic Consideration
5.1.2 Thermodynamic Support
5.2 Microstate Probabilities in Internal Equilibrium
6 The Free Volume and the Communal Entropy. 6.1 The Cell Theory
6.2 Communal Entropy
7 The Unifying Approach for Glasses
8 Perspectives
Acknowledgement
References
Note
3.4 Atomic Vibrations in Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Atomic Vibrations in Disordered Solids. 2.1 The Diatomic Linear Chain
2.2 Real Amorphous Solids
3 Vibrations and Thermal Properties. 3.1 Heat Capacity
3.2 Thermal Conductivity
4 Inelastic Spectroscopy in Glasses. 4.1 Dispersion Diagram and Experimental Techniques
4.2 Scattering Intensity
4.3 Coherent and Incoherent Scattering
5 Vibrational Spectra. 5.1 Optic Modes in the Glass Formers SiO2 and B2O3
5.2 Acoustic Excitations
6 The Boson Peak
6.1 Oxide Glasses
6.2 Other Glasses
7 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Additional References for Figure Captions
Note
3.5 Density of Amorphous Oxides
1 Introduction
2 Measuring the Density of Amorphous Oxides. 2.1 Theoretical Considerations
2.2 Density of Amorphous Solids
2.3 Measurements in the Glass Transition Range
2.4 Measurements at Superliquidus Conditions
2.5 Compressibility and the Pressure Dependence of Density
3 Measured Density Variations. 3.1 Superliquidus Densities at 1 bar: Variations as a Function of Composition
3.2 Variations in Density over Large Temperature Ranges
3.3 Variations in Density with Pressure
4 Practical Applications
5 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
3.6 Thermodynamic Properties of Oxide Glasses and Liquids
1 Introduction
2 Thermodynamic Functions. 2.1 The Entropy Problem
2.2 Gibbs Free Energy and Stability
2.3 Experimental Approaches. 2.3.1 General Remarks
2.3.2 Heat Capacity and Enthalpy
2.3.3 Enthalpies of Transformation
2.4 The Influence of Thermal History
3 Low‐temperature Heat Capacity and Entropy. 3.1 From the Vibrational Density of States to the Heat Capacity
3.2 Oxygen Coordination of Network‐modifying Cations
3.3 Oxygen Coordination of Network‐Forming Cations
3.4 Partial Molar Entropy of Oxides in Silicate Glasses
3.5 Calorimetric Boson Peak
4 High‐temperature Properties. 4.1 Glasses
4.2 Liquids
4.3 Residual Entropies
5 Reaction Thermodynamics. 5.1 Enthalpies of Mixing
5.2 Gibbs Free Energies of Formation
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
3.7 Structural and Stress Relaxation in Glass‐Forming Liquids
1 Introduction
2 Structural Relaxation: A Few Examples
3 Structural Relaxation. 3.1 Description of the Configurational State by at Least One Fictive Temperature
3.2 Prediction of Glass Properties from Temperature and Fictive Temperature(s)
3.3 Tool's Original Model
3.4 The Tool–Narayanaswamy–Moynihan Model
3.5 Calorimetric Determination of the TNM(MRS) Model Parameters
3.6 Prediction of Thermal Shrinkage with the TNM(MRS) Model
3.7 Prediction of Refractive Index with the TNM(MRS) Model
4 Shear Viscoelasticity
4.1 Maxwell Model
4.2 (Kelvin–)Voigt Model: Delayed Elasticity
4.3 Shear in Glass
4.4 A Realistic Representation of Shear Relaxation: Burger Model
4.5 Kohlrausch (Williams–Watts) Kinetics for Shear Relaxation
4.6 Boltzmann's Superposition Principle
4.7 Temperature Dependence of the Relaxation Time
4.8 Determination of the Parameters of Shear Viscoelasticity
5 Bulk Viscoelasticity
5.1 Bulk Viscoelasticity in Case of Small Pressure Changes
5.2 Bulk Viscoelasticity for Large Pressure Changes – Fictive Pressure
6 Perspectives
References
Note
3.8 Hyperquenched Glasses: Relaxation and Properties
1 Introduction
2 Fictive Temperature and Cooling Rates
3 Sub‐Tg Relaxation
4 Anomalous Relaxation
5 Modeling of Sub‐Tg Relaxation
6 Boson Peak
7 Resolving Glass Problems Via Hyperquenching‐Annealing Calorimetry. 7.1 Johari–Goldstein (JG) Relaxation
7.2 Mechanical Properties
7.3 Fragile‐to‐Strong Transitions
7.4 Detection of Structural Heterogeneity in Glass
8 Perspectives
References
Note
3.9 Polyamorphism and Liquid–Liquid Phase Transitions
1 Introduction
2 Acronyms
2 Liquid–Liquid Phase Transitions and Polyamorphism. 2.1 Density‐ and Entropy‐Driven Phase Transitions in Solids
2.2 First‐Order Phase Transitions in Liquids
2.3 Melting Curve Maxima and Two‐State Models
2.4 Relationship Between Liquid–Liquid Phase Transitions and Polyamorphism
2.5 Observations of Polyamorphism in Glasses and Amorphous Solids
2.6 High‐Pressure Studies of Glass
2.7 Configurational Energy Landscape Interpretations
3 Classic Systems Exhibiting Polyamorphism. 3.1 H2O: Thermodynamic Anomalies, PIA, and High‐ to Low‐Density Polyamorphs
3.2 SiO2, GeO2, and BeF2
3.3 Amorphous Semiconductors: Si and Ge
3.4 Polyamorphic Transitions in the Y2O3–Al2O3 System
3.5 The Case of Phosphorus: Liquid–Liquid vs. Liquid–Fluid Transitions
3.6 Triphenyl Phosphite
3.7 Metallic Glasses
4 Perspectives
References
Note
3.10 Pressure‐Induced Amorphization
1 Introduction
2 First Observation of PIA: Metastable Melting vs. Mechanical Destabilization of Ice Ih
3 SiO2 and AlPO4: “Memory Glass” Effects
4 SnI4 and Cu2O: Examples of Compositionally Driven Instability
5 Nanocrystalline Materials
6 Zeolites as Examples of “Perfect Glass” Formation
7 Configurational Energy Landscapes
8 Perspectives
References
Note
3.11 Mechanical Properties of Inorganic Glasses
1 Introduction
2 The Importance of Flaws
3 Moduli and Hardness. 3.1 Stress, Strain, and Elastic Moduli
3.2 Hardness and Plasticity
4 Fracture Toughness and Strength
5 Flaws and Strength. 5.1 Flaw Sizes
5.2 Flaw Statistics
6 Chemically Assisted Crack Growth – Stress Corrosion
7 Improving the Practical Strength of Glass. 7.1 Residual Stresses – Thermal and Chemical Tempering
7.2 Coatings
8 Perspectives
References
Note
3.12 Strengthening of Oxide Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Strength and Stresses
3 Elimination of Surface Flaws. 3.1 Polishing
3.2 Laser Heating and Cutting
4 Thermal Strengthening. 4.1 Compressive Stresses
4.2 Tempering Processes
4.3 Strengthening Limitations
4.4 The Problem of Nickel Sulfide
5 Chemical Strengthening. 5.1 An Expanding Method
5.2 Ion‐Exchange Diffusion
5.3 The Ion “Stuffing” Method
5.4 Differential Expansion Strengthening
6 Strengthening by Coating. 6.1 General Principles
6.2 Sol–gel Coatings
6.3 Other Coatings
7 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
3.13 Radiation Effects in Glass
1 Introduction
2 Point Defects
3 Vitreous Phase Stability and Bubble Formation. 3.1 Ionizing Irradiation
3.2 Nuclear Collisions
4 Glass Network Evolution Under Irradiation
4.1 Structural Effects
4.2 Density Effects
5 Optical Properties. 6 RIA and Emission
6.1 Refractive Index
6.2 RE‐Doped Glasses
7 Effect on Mechanical Properties
8 Mitigation of Radiation Effects
9 Perspectives
References
Note
3.14 Amorphous Ices
1 Introduction
Acronyms
2 Ice Phase Transitions. 2.1 Calorimetric Observations
2.2 Phase and Volume Observations
3 Predictions of Glass–Glass and Liquid–Liquid Transitions. 3.1 Preliminary Remarks
3.2 Nucleation Temperatures of Ordered Liquid 1 and Ordered Liquid 2
3.3 High‐Pressure Homogeneous Nucleation of Glass Phase 3
3.4 Transformation of Phase 3 Under Pressure into a Lower‐Enthalpy Glass
4 Numerical Applications to Water. 4.1 Heat Capacity Below Tg at Zero Pressure and Kauzmann Temperature
4.2 Heat Capacity of Confined Water and the Glass Transition at Tg= 177.5 K
4.3 First‐Order LDA–HDA Ice Transition Under Pressure
4.4 VHDA Ice
4.5 Fragile‐to‐Strong Liquid Transformation of Water at Room Pressure
4.6 The Phase Diagram of Water at −0.175 ≤ P ≤ 0.176 GPa
5 Supercluster Formation at the Glass Transition of Strong Liquids
6 Perspectives
References
Note
Section IV. Transport Properties
4.1 Viscosity of Glass‐Forming Melts
1 Introduction
2 General Aspects and Definitions
3 Structural Aspects
4 Technological Aspects. 4.1 Measuring Methods
4.2 Gas Bubble Rise
4.3 Falling Sphere
4.4 Rotating Cylinder
4.5 Fiber Elongation
4.6 Parallel Plate
4.7 Beam Bending
4.8 Sphere Penetration
4.9 Rod Torsion
4.10 Standard (Fixed) Points
5 Temperature Dependence of Viscosity. 5.1 Viscosity Regimes
5.2 Viscosity–Temperature Relationships
5.3 Scaling with Temperature and Master Diagrams
6 Composition Dependence. 6.1 Pure Oxide and Binary Silicate Melts
6.2 Ternary and Multicomponent Silicate Melts
6.3 Effects of Water
6.4 Empirical Predictions from Composition
7 Dependence on Time and Strain Rate. 7.1 Time‐Dependent Viscosity
7.2 Strain Rate‐Dependent Viscosity
7.3 Non‐Newtonian Flow and the Glass Transition Range
8 Dependence on Microstructure. 8.1 Heterogeneous Melts
8.2 Crystal‐Bearing Melts
8.3 Bubbly Melts and Emulsions
9 Perspectives
References
Appendix. A.1 Supplementary Information
Supplementary References
Notes
4.2 Ionic and Electronic Transport
1 Introduction
2 Ionic Conductivity and Diffusion. 2.1 Experimental Determination
2.2 Temperature Dependence of Ionic Conductivity
2.3 Composition Dependence of Ionic Conductivity
3 Ionic Transport Mechanisms. 3.1 General Features
3.2 Ionic Transport Below the Glass Transition: The Ionic Crystal Formalism. 3.2.1 Anderson–Stuart Model: A Vacancy Mechanism
3.2.2 An Improved Vacancy Mechanism: The Dynamic Structure Model
3.2.3 Charles Model: An Interstitial Pair Mechanism
3.2.4 Mechanisms Inferred from Diffusion Measurements
3.2.5 More About the Ionic Crystal Formalism
3.2.6 Ionic Transport and Pressure
3.2.7 The Weak Electrolyte Model
4 Ionic Transport Above the Glass Transition: An Entropic Mechanism
5 Electronically Conductive Glasses. 5.1 Band Scheme and Localized States in Covalent or Ionic Glasses
5.2 Temperature Dependence of Electronic Conductivity
5.3 Possible Electronic Transport Mechanisms
5.4 Electronic Switching Effect in Oxide and Chalcogenide Glasses
6 Perspectives
References
Note
4.3 Diffusion in Oxide Glass‐forming Systems
1 Introduction
2 Physical and Chemical Description of Diffusion. 2.1 Fick's Laws
2.2 Diffusion Mechanisms
2.3 Diffusion Distance
2.4 Types of Diffusion
3 Experimental Methods for Determining Diffusivity
4 Influence on Diffusivity of Species Properties
5 Compositional Control
5.1 Silicate Systems
5.2 Nonsilicate Systems
5.3 Mixed Alkali Effect
6 Temperature and Pressure Effects. 6.1 Temperature Effects
6.2 Pressure Effects
7 Insights from Molecular Dynamics Simulations
8 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
4.4 Chemical Diffusion in Multicomponent Glass‐forming Systems
1 Introduction
2 Conceptual and Experimental Approaches. 2.1 Fundamental Concepts
2.2 Experimental Strategy
3 Tracer vs. Chemical Diffusion
4 Diffusion in Multicomponent Systems. 4.1 A First Approach: The Effective Binary Diffusion
4.2 The Fick–Onsager Thermodynamic Approach
4.3 Determination of the Diffusion Matrix
4.4 Uphill Diffusion
4.5 Diffusion Path
5 Available Chemical Diffusion Data. 5.1 Identified Couplings
5.2 Diffusion Paths
5.3 Temperature Dependence
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
4.5 Thermal Diffusivity and Conductivity of Glasses and Melts
1 Introduction
2 Theory. 2.1 Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity
2.2 Conductive Heat Transport
2.3 Radiative Heat Transport. 2.3.1 Absorbance
2.3.2 Diffusive Radiative Transport
2.3.3 Ballistic Radiative Transport
2.4 Characteristic Speeds of Microscopic Mechanisms
3 Measurement Techniques
3.1 Contact‐Free Methods
3.2 Conventional Techniques Involving Physical Contacts and Direct Heating
3.3 Periodic Contact Techniques
3.4 Steady‐state Contact Techniques
3.5 Contact Techniques That Are Neither Transient, Periodic Nor Steady‐state
4 Thermal Diffusivity and Conductivity Data: Key Variables
4.1 Temperature Dependence of Thermal Diffusivity and Conductivity
4.2 Effects of the Glass Transition and Melt Properties
4.3 Effects of Composition and Crystallinity and Correlation with Fragility
4.4 An Additional Mechanism for Heat Transfer?
5 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
List of Mathematical Symbols and Functions
References
Note
4.6 Atomistic Simulations of Transport Properties
1 Introduction
2 MD Simulations: Conditions and Potentials
3 Dynamics. 3.1 Mean‐squared Displacements and Diffusion Coefficients
3.2 Temporal and Spatial Aspects of the Dynamics
3.3 Transport Properties
3.4 Space‐time Correlations
4 Insights into Dynamic Heterogeneities. 4.1 Slow and Fast Ion Motion
4.2 Characterization of Dynamical Heterogeneities
4.3 Multifractal Analyses
4.4 Non‐Gaussian Dynamics
5 Mixed Alkali Effect
6 Glass Transition and Thermodynamic Scaling
7 Perspectives
References
Note
Section V. Chemistry of Glass
5.1 Chemical Analyses and Characterization of Glass
1 Introduction
List of Acronyms
2 Gravimetry and Glass Digestion
3 X‐Ray Fluorescence. 3.1 General
3.2 Wavelength‐Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence
3.3 Energy‐Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence
4 Inductively Coupled Plasma Methods. 4.1 General
4.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry
4.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectroscopy
5 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
6 Microprobe Analyses. 6.1 Electron Probe Microanalysis
6.2 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
7 Special Elements. 7.1 Boron
7.2 Lithium
7.3 Fluorine
7.4 Ferrous Iron
8 Resistance to Chemical Attack
8.1 Hydrolytic Resistance
8.2 Acid and Alkali Resistance
8.3 Leaching of Pb and Cd
9 Analyses of Glass Defects
9.1 Micro‐X‐Ray Fluorescence
9.2 Laser‐Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy
9.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy‐Dispersive X‐Ray Analysis
10 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
5.2 Phase Equilibria and Phase Diagrams in Oxide Systems
1 Introduction
2 Thermodynamic Principles. 2.1 Gibbs Free Energy
2.2 Phase Rule
2.3 Gibbs Free Energy of Mixing
3 Basic Topological Types of Binary T–x Diagrams. 3.1 General Remarks
3.2 Complete Miscibility in Melt and No Solubility or Reaction Between Solids
3.3 Complete Miscibility in Melt and Binary Solid Solution
3.4 Complete Miscibility in Melt and Solid Solution
3.5 Complete Miscibility in Melt and Limited Miscibility in Solid Solution
3.6 Limited Miscibility in Melt
4 Ternary Diagrams
5 Some Phase Diagrams for Glass‐Forming Systems. 5.1 The Determining Influence of Cation Size and Charge
5.2 Silica–Metal Oxide Binaries
5.3 The System Na2O–CaO–SiO2
5.4 Borosilicate Systems
6 Perspectives
References
Note
5.3 Thermodynamic Models of Oxide Melts
1 Introduction
2 General Considerations. 2.1 Gibbs Free Energy Minimization Principle and Mixing Properties
2.2 A First Example: Melting in the CaO–SiO2 System
3 Thermodynamic Models. 3.1 Fictive‐Chemical Models: Regular Mixtures
3.2 Fictive‐Chemical Models: Mechanical Mixtures
3.3 Fictive‐Structural or Cellular Models
3.4 Quasi‐Chemical Models
3.5 Polymeric Approach
4 First‐Principles Calculations
5 Perspectives
References
Notes
5.4 Nucleation, Growth, and Crystallization in Inorganic Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Crystal Nucleation and Classical Nucleation Theory
3 Basic Models of Crystal Growth in Supercooled Liquids
4 Overall Crystallization and Glass‐forming Ability: The Johnson–Mehl–Avrami–Kolmogorov Approach
5 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
Table of Symbols
References
Note
5.5 Solubility of Volatiles
1 Introduction
2 Principles and Concepts. 2.1 Reactive and Nonreactive Solubility
2.2 Glass Versus Quenched Melt
2.3 Intensive Variables (Pressure, Temperature, Redox Conditions)
2.4 Composition
3 Reactive Volatiles in Silicate Glass and Melt
3.1 Hydrous Glass and Melt
3.1.1 Solubility and Solution Mechanisms
3.1.2 Structure–Property Relations
3.2 Oxidized Carbon (CO2)
3.2.1 Solubility and Solution Mechanisms
3.2.2 Structure–Property Relations
3.3 Reduced Carbon
3.3.1 Solubility, Solution Mechanisms, and Properties
3.4 Reduced Nitrogen
3.5 Sulfur
3.6 Halogens
3.7 Hydrogen
4 Nonreactive Volatiles in Silicate Glass and Melt
5 Perspectives
References
Note
5.6 Redox Thermodynamics and Kinetics in Silicate Melts and Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Oxidation/Reduction Thermodynamics. 2.1 Reference Reactions: Pure Metal to Pure Metal Oxide; Pure Oxide to Pure Oxide of Different Valence
2.2 General Redox Reactions: The Case of Solutions
3 Oxidation/Reduction Kinetics
4 Open‐System Redox Dynamics
4.1 The Phenomenology of Open‐System Oxidation
4.2 A Structural Perspective on Open‐System Oxidation Dynamics
4.3 Open‐System Reduction and the Float‐Glass Reaction
5 Closed‐System (or Internal) Redox Dynamics
6 Perspectives
References
Notes
5.7 Optical Basicity: Theory and Application
1 Introduction: The Need for a Suitable Basicity Scale for Oxide Melts
2 Theoretical Foundation of Optical Basicity
3 Redox Equilibria in Network Melts
4 Optical Basicity and Electronic Polarizability
5 Chemical Reactions: Changes in Structure and Bonding
6 High and Low Optical–Basicity Materials
7 Optical Basicity and Electronegativity
8 Perspectives
4.3 Acknowledgment
References
Note
5.8 The Glass Electrode and Electrode Properties of Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Types and Properties of Glass Electrodes. 2.1 The Glass Electrode
2.2 pH Measurements
2.3 pM Measurements
2.4 High‐Temperature Glass Electrodes
2.5 Glass Electrodes for Redox Measurements
3 Glass Structure as Viewed by the Glass Electrode. 3.1 The Electrode Method
3.2 Effect of a Second Network Modifier
3.3 Effect of a Second Network Former
4 Theories of the Glass Electrode. 4.1 Nikolskii’s Thermodynamic Ion‐Exchange Theory
4.2 Evolution of the Theory
4.3 Nikolskii–Eisenman Equation
4.4 Processes in the Surface Layers of Glass and the Glass Electrode Potential
4.5 Nernst–Planck–Poisson Model
4.6 Baucke’s Dissociation Mechanism
5 Perspectives
References
Note
5.9 Electrochemistry of Oxide Melts
1 Introduction
2 Thermodynamics of Redox Equilibria
3 Experimental Aspects
4 Standard Potentials and Equilibrium Constants
5 Diffusion Coefficients
6 Voltammetric Sensors: Quantitative Determinations of Polyvalent Elements
7 Impedance Spectroscopy
8 Perspectives
References
Note
5.10 Glass/Metal Interactions
1 Introduction
2 Wetting, Sticking, and Adhesion Phenomena
3 Control of High‐Temperature Chemical Interactions at the Metal/Molten Glass Interface
4 Characterization of the Glass/Metal Interaction
4.1 “Raw Immersion” Technique
4.2 Electrochemical Methods. 4.2.1 General Principles
4.2.2 Linear Voltammetry
4.2.3 Corrosion Potential and Polarization Resistance
4.2.4 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy
5 Corrosion of Metals and Alloys by Molten Glass. 5.1 Corrosion of Pure Metals. 5.1.1 Noble Metals
5.1.2 Common Metals
5.2 Corrosion of Alloys
5.2.1 Alumina‐Forming Alloys
5.2.2 Chromia‐Forming Alloys
5.3 Temperature Effects
6 Perspectives
References
Note
5.11 Durability of Commercial‐type Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Chemical Processes and Parameters
2.1 Neutral or Acidic Media
2.2 Basic Media
2.3 Evolution of Water Attack: From Reactions (1) to (4)
3 Alteration as Related to Glass Composition. 3.1 Soda‐Lime Glass
3.2 Lead‐Crystal Glass
3.3 Borosilicate Glasses
3.4 Insulating Glass Fibers
3.5 Reinforcement Fiberglass
4 Post‐Production Corrosion of Flat and Container Glass. 4.1 Flat Glass
4.2 Container Glass
5 Characterization Methods
6 Protection Methods
7 Perspectives
References
Note
5.12 Mechanisms of Glass Corrosion by Aqueous Solutions
1 Introduction
List of Acronyms (cf. Chapters 2.3 and 5.1)
2 Early Models
3 Leached‐layer Model. 3.1 The Standard Model
3.2 A Complex Hybrid Model
4 Coupled Interfacial Dissolution‐Reprecipitation (CIDR) 4.1 High‐resolution Analyses
4.2 Dissolution/Reprecipitation
4.3 Pending Questions
5 Rates of Dissolution and Element Release. 5.1 Dissolution Rates and How They Are Measured
5.2 Stoichiometry of Dissolution Rates
5.3 Dissolution Rates as a Function of Composition
5.4 Dissolution Rates as a Function of pH and Temperature
5.5 Decrease of Dissolution Rates by Chemical Affinity (ΔGr) and Pore Closure Effects
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
Section VI. Glass and Light
6.1 Optical Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Basic Features. 2.1 Reflection Versus Refraction
2.2 Angle of Incidence
2.3 Beam Light Characteristics
3 Transmitted Light Tin. 3.1 Light Refraction
3.2 Dispersion
3.3 Light Absorption and Re‐emission
4 Glass Properties. 4.1 Bonding
4.2 Homogeneity
5 Glass Responses. 5.1 Reflection
5.2 Absorption
5.3 Glass Types for Traditional Optics
5.4 Engineered Glass for Specific Optical Properties
6 Interaction of Optical Components with Light. 6.1 Lenses
6.2 Mirrors
6.3 Filters
6.4 Prisms and Gratings
7 Perspectives
References
Note
6.2 The Color of Glass
1 Introduction
2 Background on Color Processes. 2.1 Light Transmission by Glasses
2.2 The Role of Transition Elements as Coloring Agents
2.3 The Sites Occupied by Transition Elements in Glasses: A Limited Disorder
3 Crystal‐Field‐Driven Glass Color
3.1 Crystal‐Field Effects
3.2 Peculiar Sites, Peculiar Colors: The Example of Ni2+
3.3 Peculiar Sites with a Continuous Site Distribution: Fe2+ and Fe3+
3.4 Presence of One Site Geometry: Cr3
3.5 The Case of Silent Species: Co2+‐Bearing Glasses
4 Variation of Glass Coloration. 4.1 Dependence of Color on Glass Composition
4.2 Variation of Site Geometry: Presence of a Single Type of Site
4.3 Variation of Site Geometry: Presence of Two Sites
4.4 Redox Equilibria and Glass Coloration
5 Temperature Dependence of the Optical Absorption Spectra of Glasses: Thermochromism
5.1 Coexistence of Well‐Defined Sites: Ni2+
5.2 Presence of One Site: Direct Evidence of a Thermal Expansion of Cation Sites
6 Charge‐Transfer Processes: From Amber Glasses to Lunar Glasses. 6.1 Ligand to Metal Charge Transfer (LMCT)
6.2 Intervalence Charge Transfer
7 Absorption by Organized Clusters and Nanophases. 7.1 Presence of Organized Clusters: Low‐Alkali Borate and Borosilicate Glasses
7.2 Metallic Nanoparticles
7.3 Photochromic Glasses
8 Perspectives
References
Note
6.3 Photoluminescence in Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Inelastic Light Scattering Through Photoluminescence
3 Photoluminescence and Glass Chemistry
4 Efficiency, Lifetime, and Quenching Effects
5 Applications
6 Perspectives
References
Note
6.4 Optical Fibers
1 Introduction
2 Optical Properties and Fiber Designs. 2.1 Optical Properties. 2.1.1 Dispersion, Absorption and Scattering
2.1.2 Active Optical Properties
2.1.3 Nonlinear Optical Properties
2.2 Optical Fiber Designs
2.2.1 Conventional Core–Clad Optical Fibers
2.2.2 Double‐Clad Optical Fiber
2.2.3 Microstructured and Photonic Crystal Optical Fiber
3 Optical Fiber Glasses. 3.1 Silica and Silicates
3.2 Phosphates
3.3 Infrared Glasses. 3.3.1 General Remarks
3.3.2 Heavy Metal Oxides
3.3.3 Fluorides
3.3.4 Chalcogenides
4 Optical Fiber Fabrication
4.1 Glass Formation
4.1.1 Melt/Quench
4.1.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition
4.2 Fiber Formation
4.2.1 Double Crucible
4.2.2 Fiber Draw
5 Applications
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
6.5 Fluoride and Chalcogenide Glasses for Mid‐infrared Optics
1 Introduction
2 Glass Transparency in the Infrared Region
3 Fluoride Glasses: Formation and Structure. 3.1 Glass Formation in Metal Fluorides MFx
3.2 Polymeric Networks Based on ZrFn Polyhedra
4 Applications of Fluoride Glasses. 4.1 General Considerations
4.2 Optical Fibers for Guiding Infrared Light
4.3 Passive Properties
4.4 Active Properties
5 Chalcogenide Glasses. 5.1 Formation with Chalcogens
5.2 Network Reticulation from Selenium Chains
6 Chalcogenide Glass Applications. 6.1 General Considerations
6.2 Infrared Glass Molding
6.3 Fiber Evanescent‐wave Spectroscopy
6.4 Glass for Space Exploration
7 Perspectives
References
Note
6.6 Optoelectronics: Active Chalcogenide Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Active Chalcogenide Glasses Doped with Rare‐Earth Ions
3 Optical Fiber Amplifiers. 3.1 O‐Band (1260–1360 nm) Telecommunication Window
3.2 S‐Band (1460–1530 nm) Telecommunication Window
3.3 U‐Band (1625–1675 nm) Telecommunication Window
3.4 Rates of Multiphonon Relaxation
3.5 The Influence of the Local Structure
4 Mid‐Infrared Lasers. 4.1 General Remarks
4.2 Dy3+‐Doped Chalcogenide Glasses
4.3 Pr3+‐Doped Chalcogenide Glasses
5 Chalcogenide Quantum Dots. 5.1 Fundamentals
5.2 Optical Properties of Quantum Dots in Glasses
5.3 Fabrication of Glasses Containing Quantum Dots. 5.3.1 Methods and Matrices
5.3.2 New Strategies
5.4 Potential Applications
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
6.7 Modification Technologies of Glass Surfaces
1 Introduction
2 Hot‐End Processes in Glass Production. 2.1 Dealkalization
2.2 Flame Polishing
3 Cleaning
4 Strengthening. 4.1 Ion Exchange Processes
4.2 Thermal Tempering
5 Modification of the Surface Topography. 5.1 Process and Surface Topography
5.2 Grinding and Polishing
6 Structuring and Texturing
7 Applications
8 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
6.8 Thin‐Film Technologies for Glass Surfaces
1 Introduction
2 Acronyms
2 Deposition Techniques
3 Thin Films. 3.1 Thin Film Materials on Glass and Film Properties
3.2 The Example of TiO2
4 Transparent Conducting Oxides. 4.1 General Remarks
4.2 Optoelectronics
4.3 Low‐Emissivity Coatings
4.4 Antireflective Glasses
4.5 Multilayer Interference Coatings
5 Miscellaneous Uses
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
6.9 Glass for Lighting
1 Introduction
2 Glass for Incandescent and Electric Discharge Lamps. 2.1 Incandescent Lamps
2.2 Tungsten‐Halogen Lamps
2.3 Fluorescent Lamps
2.4 High‐Intensity Discharge Lamps
2.5 Xenon Lamps
3 Glass for Solid‐State Lighting. 3.1 General Considerations
3.2 Light‐Emitting Diodes
3.3 Quantum Dot Light‐Emitting Diodes Backlight
3.4 Organic Light‐Emitting Diodes
4 Perspectives
References
Note
6.10 Screens and Displays
1 Introduction
Acronyms
2 Cathode‐Ray Tubes
3 Glasses for Flat‐Panel Displays. 3.1 General Considerations
3.2 The Problem of Thermal Compaction
3.3 Glass Frits
3.4 Front Cover Glass
3.5 Drivers: Glass for TFT Arrays
4 Liquid‐Crystal Displays
5 Plasma‐Display Panels
6 Organic Light‐Emitting Diodes
7 Device Configuration
8 Perspectives
References
Note
Encyclopedia of Glass Science, Technology, History, and Culture
List of Contributors
Preface
Select Additional Reading. The Vitreous State
Glass Systems and Properties
Compilations of Glass Data
Glass Art
Section VII. Inorganic Glass Families
7.1 Extraterrestrial Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Chondrules: The Oldest Glasses of the Solar System
3 The Lunar Glass‐Bead Factory. 3.1 Volcanic Glasses
3.2 Impact‐Produced Glasses
4 Cosmic Spherules
5 Terrestrial Versus Extraterrestrial
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
Note
7.2 Geological Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Compositional Diversity of Natural Glasses
3 Fulgurites: The Petrified Lightnings
4 Impact‐Related Glasses. 4.1 Impactites
4.2 Tektites
4.3 Other Impact Glasses: The Example of Rochechouart Pseudotachylites
5 The Basalt Factory. 5.1 The Ubiquitous Basalts
5.2 Pelé's Hair and Reticulite
5.3 Water‐Quenched Glasses
5.4 Columnar Jointing: The Role of the Glass Transition
6 Siliceous Glasses. 6.1 Pumices: Bubble‐Rich Glasses
6.2 Obsidians
7 The Fate of Natural Glasses
8 Compositional vs. Rheological Variability
9 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
7.3 Corrosion of Natural Glasses in Seawater
1 Introduction
2 From Basalt Glass to Palagonite
3 Seafloor Basalt Alteration by Abiotic and Biotic Processes
4 Alteration Enhancement by Microorganism Metabolic Processes
5 Biotic Corrosion Models
6 Abiotic Corrosion Models
7 The Abiotic vs. Biotic Alteration Debate
8 Which Mechanism Controls Basalt Glass Corrosion?
9 Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
Note
7.4 Metallurgical Slags
1 Introduction
2 Basic Constraints: A Summary. 2.1 Fast Kinetics
2.2 Slag/Metal Entrapment
2.3 Refractory Protection
2.4 Electrical Conduction
2.5 Heat Transfer
2.6 Lubrication
3 From Composition to Reactivity. 3.1 Compositions of Metallurgical Slags and Fluxes
3.2 Reactivity of Slags
4 Slag Properties. 4.1 General Features
4.2 Polymerization of the Slag
4.3 Effect of Cations on Properties and Structure
5 Transport Properties
5.1 Viscosity
5.2 Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity
5.3 Diffusion Coefficients (D)
5.4 Thermal Conductivity (K)
6 Thermodynamic Properties. 6.1 Thermal Expansion Coefficient
6.2 Density (ρ) and Molar Volume (V)
6.3 Thermodynamics and Liquidus Temperature
6.4 Sulfur and Phosphorus Capacities
6.5 Surface Tension (γ) and Interfacial Tension (γmsl)
6.6 Comparison of Property Values for Metallurgical and Coal Slags and Molten Minerals
7 Perspectives
References
Note
7.5 Water Glass
1 Introduction
2 Fabrication of Water Glass. 2.1 Process I: Glass Synthesis with Subsequent Dissolution in Water
2.2 Process II: Dissolution of Silica Phases in Alkaline Lyes
2.3 Production of Crystalline Sodium Silicates
3 Materials and Chemical Stability and Structure. 3.1 Alkali Silicate Glasses
3.2 Na2O–SiO2–H2O
3.3 K2O–SiO2–H2O
3.4 Other Types of Water Glass
3.5 Solubility of Silica at High pH
3.6 Structure of Liquid Water Glass at a Molecular Scale
3.7 Structure of Liquid Water Glass at a Colloidal Scale
4 Properties of Water Glass. 4.1 Refractive Index, pH, Density, and Viscosity
4.2 Chemical Reactivity
5 Applications of Water Glass
5.1 Liquid Water Glass and Amorphous Materials: Gels, Silica Sols, Precipitated Silica, and Dried Water Glasses
5.2 Crystalline Materials: Zeolites and Crystalline Sodium Silicates
5.3 Binders
6 Perspectives
References
Note
7.6 Borosilicate Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Borosilicate Applications. 2.1 Early Products
2.2 Modern Materials
3 Vycor: A Composition–Structure Case Study
4 Structural Aspects. 4.1 Fourfold Coordinated Boron
4.2 Silicon–Boron Mixing
4.3 Superstructural Units
4.4 From NMR to Integrated Studies
4.5 The Impact of Al2O3
5 Temperature and Pressure Variations of Network Structure. 5.1 Temperature vs. Entropy
5.2 Pressure vs. Volume
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
7.7 Glass for Pharmaceutical Use
1 Introduction
2 Glass Products and Types
3 Production of Pharmaceutical Glasses and Containers
3.1 Glass‐Tubing Production
3.2 Container Production from Tubing
4 Physical Resistance
5 Chemical Resistance. 5.1 Corrosion Reactions
5.2 Testing of the Hydrolytic Resistance of Containers
5.3 Glass Extractables
6 Surface Interactions with Pharmaceutical Products. 6.1 General Features
6.2 Delamination
6.3 Tungsten
6.4 Particle Release
7 Internal/External Treatments for Chemical/Mechanical Resistance
7.1 Ammonium Sulfate
7.2 Siliconization
7.3 Glass Strengthening
8 Perspectives
References
Note
7.8 Oxynitride Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Solubility of Nitrogen in Glasses
3 Glass Formation in M–Si–Al–O–N Systems and Its Representation
4 Structure of Oxynitride Glasses. 4.1 Si─N Bonding
4.2 Aluminum Incorporation
4.3 Si─N vs. Al─N Bonding
4.4 Vibrational Density of States
5 Effects of Composition on Properties. 5.1 General Features
5.2 Mechanical and Elastic Properties
5.3 Thermal Properties – Glass Transition Temperature, Softening Temperature, Viscosity, Thermal Expansion Coefficient
5.4 Fracture, Strength, Slow Crack Growth
5.5 Optical and Electrical Properties
6 Oxynitride Glass–Ceramics
7 Phosphorus Oxynitride Glasses
8 Lower‐Temperature Preparation Methods
9 Perspectives
References
Note
7.9 Phosphate Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Structure. 2.1 Phosphate Groups
2.2 Mixed Glass Networks
2.3 Chain Lengths
3 Synthesis. 3.1 Composition Ranges
3.2 Synthesis
3.3 Corrosivity
4 Physical Properties. 4.1 The Importance of Field Strength
4.2 Rheological and Related Properties
4.3 Volume Properties
5 Optical Properties. 5.1 Classical Optics
5.2 Rare‐earth Doping
5.3 Laser Systems
5.4 Phosphate Glass Fibers
5.5 Phosphors
5.6 Electromagnetic Safety
6 Chemical Properties. 6.1 Dissolution Mechanisms
6.2 Chain Stability
6.3 Controlled Ion Release
6.4 Applications to Biology and Food Industry
7 Other Applications. 7.1 Ion Incorporation
7.2 Seals
7.3 Lubrication
7.4 Capacitors
7.5 Miscellaneous
8 Perspectives
References
Note
7.10 Bulk Metallic Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Glass Formation. 2.1 Vitrification Criteria
2.2 Glass Transition
2.3 Vitrification Versus Crystallization
2.4 Density and Entropy
2.5 Viscosity
2.6 Thermal and Electrical Conductivity
3 Structure. 3.1 Short‐range Order
3.2 Structural Heterogeneities
3.3 Phase‐separated Glasses
3.4 Porous Glasses
3.5 Nanostructured Materials Produced by Thermal Crystallization of Metallic Glassy Phase
4 Mechanical Properties. 4.1 High vs. Low Temperature
4.2 Quasi‐static Room‐temperature Properties
4.3 Fracture Toughness
4.4 Friction and Wear Resistance
4.5 Fatigue
4.6 Low‐temperature Mechanical Properties
5 Deformation Behavior at Room Temperature. 5.1 Shear Transformation Zones
5.2 Shear Deformation Bands
5.3 Shear Softening
5.4 Dynamic Mechanical Properties
5.5 Strain Rate Sensitivity
5.6 Mechanical Behavior of Glass‐Crystalline Composites
5.7 Glassy‐Crystal Alloys with Transformation‐Induced Placidity
6 Magnetism: Properties and Applications. 6.1 Soft Magnetic Materials
6.2 Hard Magnetic Materials
7 Other Properties and Applications. 7.1 Structural and Functional
7.2 Chemical
7.3 Medical
8 Perspectives
References
Note
7.11 Glass‐Ceramics
1 Introduction
2 History and Present Uses of Glass‐Ceramics
2.1 Formation of Glass‐Ceramics
3 Properties of Glass‐Ceramics. 3.1 Microstructure
3.2 Mechanical Properties
3.3 Optical Properties
3.4 Rheological and Thermal Properties
3.5 Chemical Durability
4 Examples of Glass‐Ceramics. 4.1 Lithium Aluminosilicate Glass‐Ceramics
4.2 Spinel‐Based Glass‐Ceramics
4.3 Magnesium Aluminosilicate Glass‐Ceramics
4.4 Lithium Silicate Glass‐Ceramics
4.5 Fluorinated Phase Glass‐Ceramics
4.6 Glass‐Ceramics Based on Phosphate Glasses
5 Perspectives
References
Note
Section VIII. Organically Related Glasses
8.1 Biogenic Silica Glasses
1 Introduction
2 A Slowly Awakening Scientific Interest
3 Biogenic Silica. 3.1 Sponge Spicules
3.2 Diatom Frustules
3.3 Phytoliths
4 The Low‐Temperature Silica Factories. 4.1 Silica Condensation
4.2 Silica Formation in Aquatic Organisms
4.3 Silica Formation in Plants
5 Biomimetism and Applications
6 Biogenic Silica in the Global Ecosystem. 6.1 Silicon Cycle
6.2 Silica Versus Calcium Carbonate
7 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
8.2 Sol–Gel Process and Products
1 Introduction
2 Sol–Gel Processing. 2.1 Basics of Sol–Gel Processes
2.2 Inorganic Sol–Gel Materials
2.3 Hybrid and Other Sol–Gel Materials
3 Advantages and Drawbacks of the Sol–Gel Process
4 Sol–Gel Products and Applications
4.1 Nanoparticles
4.2 Coatings and Thin Films
4.3 Bulk Sol–Gel Products
5 Perspectives
References
Note
8.3 Silica Aerogels
1 Introduction
2 Synthesis. 2.1 Sol–Gel Chemistry
2.2 Aging and Surface Modification
2.3 Supercritical Fluid Versus Ambient‐Pressure Drying
3 Properties. 3.1 Microstructure and Porosity
3.2 Silica and Surface Chemistry
3.3 Thermal Conductivity
3.4 Mechanical Properties
4 Applications. 4.1 Thermal Insulation
4.2 Alternative Applications
5 Markets and Industrial Production. 5.1 Markets
5.2 Production Technology
6 Silica Hybrid Aerogels, Aerogel Composites, and Non‐silica Aerogels
7 Perspectives
References
Note
8.4 Bioactive Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Melt‐Derived Bioactive Glasses
3 Bioactive Sol–Gel Glasses
4 Degradation and Apatite Formation
5 Biological Response
6 Therapeutic Ions in Bioactive Glasses
7 Applications of Bioglasses
7.1 Orthopedics
7.2 Scaffolds
7.3 Dentistry
7.4 Oral Care
7.5 Miscellaneous
8 Perspectives
References
Note
8.5 Dental Glass‐Ceramics
1 Introduction
2 History and Present Uses of Dental Glass‐Ceramics
3 Properties of Dental Glass‐Ceramics. 3.1 Mechanical Properties
3.2 Optical Properties
3.3 Thermal Properties
3.4 Chemical Properties
3.5 Radiopacity
4 Examples of Dental Glass‐Ceramics. 4.1 Leucite‐Based Glass‐Ceramics
4.2 Lithium Disilicate Glass‐Ceramics
4.3 Phosphate‐Containing Glass‐Ceramics
5 Perspectives
References
Note
8.6 Relaxation Processes in Molecular Liquids
1 Introduction
Acronyms
2 From the Boiling Point Down to the Glass Transition. 2.1 Evolution of the Dynamic Susceptibility
2.2 Time Constants
2.3 The Search for a Characteristic Length Scale
3 Binary Glass‐Forming Liquids
4 Secondary Relaxations
5 Plastic and Glassy Crystals
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
8.7 Physics of Polymer Glasses
1 Introduction
2 Polymeric Chains. 2.1 Polymer Macromolecules
2.2 Skeletal Bond Rotations
2.3 Chain Stiffness
2.4 Rotational Isomers
3 Polymeric Liquids. 3.1 The Basic Importance of Viscoelasticity
3.2 The Fractional Free Volume
3.3 Viscoelastic Properties
3.4 Temporary Elasticity
4 Polymer Transformations. 4.1 Partly Crystallized Polymers
4.2 Gels
5 Glass Transitions and Aging. 5.1 α Glass Transition
5.2 Secondary Glass Transitions
5.3 Effects of α to γ Transitions
5.4 Lowering of the Glass Transition
5.5 Aging
6 Polymer Products. 6.1 Transparent Materials
6.2 Fibers and Films
6.3 Polymeric Foams
6.4 Porous Membranes and Hollow Fibers
6.5 Mineral Particles and Polymer Mixtures
7 Perspectives
References
Note
8.8 Introduction to Polymer Chemistry
1 Introduction
Acronyms
2 Polymer Synthesis
2.1 Chain‐Growth Polymerization
2.2 Step‐Growth Polymerization
2.3 Polymer Analogous Reactions
3 Polymerization Processes
4 The Solid State. 4.1 The Glass Transition
4.2 Structural Control of the Glass Transition
4.3 Semicrystalline Polymers
4.4 Plasticization
5 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
8.9 Hybrid Inorganic–Organic Polymers
1 Introduction
2 Sol–Gel for Hybrid Materials
2.1 Precursors, Chemistry, and Processing
2.2 Overview of IOP Properties
3 Coatings. 3.1 Capillary Forces and Precursors
3.2 Coatings on Glass Surfaces
3.3 Coatings on Metals and Polymers, UV‐ and Plasma Curing Techniques
4 Particles
5 Bulk Materials, Fibers, and Composites
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
Section IX. Environmental and Other Issues
9.1 Structural Glass in Architecture
1 Introduction
2 Scheme Design
3 Float‐Glass Processing for Structural Applications
3.1 Laminating
3.2 Thermal Prestressing
3.3 Coating
3.4 Mechanical Processing
4 Design and Detailing
4.1 Safety Approaches
4.2 Structural Analysis
5 Connections. 5.1 General Considerations
5.2 Mechanical Connections. 5.2.1 Mechanical Point‐Fittings for Façade Glazing
5.2.2 Linearly Supported Façade Glazing
5.2.3 Through‐Bolt Point Connections for High‐Force Transfer
5.2.4 Friction Connections
5.3 Adhesive Connections
5.3.1 Overview
5.3.2 Linear Adhesive Connections in SSG Systems
5.3.3 Adhesive Point Connections
5.3.4 Large‐Area Adhesive Bonds
6 Perspectives
6.1 Glass Sheet Size
6.2 Cold Bending
6.3 Custom Cast Glass
6.4 Adhesive Point Connections
6.5 Hybrid Glass Components
6.6 Smart Glass
6.7 Chemical Prestressing
6.8 Thin Glass
6.9 3‐D Printing of Glass
References
Note
9.2 Tempered and Laminated Glazing for Cars
1 Introduction
2 A Brief History from the Early Twentieth Century to Today's Huge Market
3 Glazing Functions. 3.1 Vision
3.2 Safety
3.3 Car Design, Integration to Car Body, and Systems
3.4 Thermal Comfort
3.5 Acoustic Comfort
3.6 Communication, Information Display, and Other Advanced Functions
3.7 Recycling and Sustainability Issues
4 Manufacturing. 4.1 Cutting/Edge Machining
4.2 Screen Printing
4.3 Heating
4.4 Forming/Strengthening of Tempered Parts
4.5 Forming/Strengthening of Laminated Parts
4.6 Final Operations
5 Perspectives
Acknowledgement
References
Note
9.3 Stone and Glass Wool
1 Introduction
2 Classification of Man‐Made Vitreous Wool
3 Fiber Spinning Technologies
3.1 Cascade Spinning Process
3.2 Rotary Spinning Process
4 Melt Viscosity and Fiber Spinnability
5 Physical Properties of Stone and Glass Wool. 5.1 Thermal and Mechanical Histories
5.2 High Temperature Stability
5.3 Elastic Modulus and Hardness
5.4 Tensile Strength
6 Biopersistence and Biodurability
7 Perspectives
References
Note
9.4 Glasses for Solar‐energy Technologies
1 Introduction
2 The Energy Problem
3 Solar Electricity. 3.1 First‐ and Second‐generation Cells
3.2 Front and Back Glasses for PV Modules
3.3 Double‐sided Glass Modules for Building‐integrated Photovoltaics
3.4 Glass‐bearing Front Electrode Materials
4 Solar Heat. 4.1 Irradiance and Working Temperatures
4.2 Rooftop Water Heaters
4.3 Solar Thermal‐power Plants
5 Solar Fuels. 5.1 Natural and Artificial Water Splitting
5.2 Natural Photosynthesis
5.3 Artificial Photosynthesis
5.4 Solar Thermochemical Water Splitting
6 Solar Water Treatments. 6.1 Solar Desalination
6.2 Solar Disinfection
7 Perspectives
References
Note
9.5 Sulfide‐glass Electrolytes for All‐solid‐state Batteries
1 Introduction
2 Classification of All‐solid‐state Batteries
3 Sulfide Glasses. 3.1 Structure and Properties
3.2 Preparation Techniques
3.3 Chemical Stability
4 Sulfide Glasses as Solid Electrolytes. 4.1 Electrical Conductivity
4.2 Conductivity Optimization
4.3 Electrochemical Window
4.4 Formability
5 Bulk‐type Batteries with Sulfide Electrolytes. 5.1 Electrodes
5.2 Interfacial Resistance
6 Interfacial Design
6.1 Surface Coating of Solid Electrolyte on Active Material Particles
6.2 Ball‐milling Prepared Nanocomposites
6.3 Use of the Supercooled Liquid State
7 Perspectives
References
Note
9.6 The World of the Flat‐glass Industry: Key Milestones, Current Status, and Future Trends
1 Introduction
2 A Short Overview: Processes and Products. 2.1 From the Beginnings to the Mid‐nineteenth Century
2.2 Latest Key Milestones
3 The Float‐glass World. 3.1 The Age of Float Glass
3.2 The Changing Geography of Float Glass
3.3 Development and Profitability
3.4 Some Flat‐glass Economics
3.5 Market Trends
4 Perspectives
References
Note
9.7 Design and Operation of Glass Furnaces
1 Introduction
2 The Furnace Families. 2.1 Common Features
2.2 End‐Fired Regenerative Furnaces
2.3 Cross‐Fired Regenerative Furnaces
2.4 Recuperative Furnaces
2.5 Oxyfuel Furnaces
2.6 All‐Electric Furnaces
3 Melter. 3.1 Alumina–Zirconia–Silica Refractories
3.2 Tank
3.3 Additional Tools: Bubblers and Boosters
3.4 Superstructure
3.5 Operating Features. 3.5.1 Batch Loading
3.5.2 Monitoring
4 Heat Management. 4.1 Burners
4.2 Regenerators
4.3 Recuperators
4.4 Flue‐Gas Channels
5 Furnace Design. 5.1 General Considerations
5.2 Empirical Guidelines
5.3 Increasing the Specific Load: An Example with Amber Glass
6 NOx Emissions
7 Perspectives
References
Note
9.8 Physics and Modeling of Glass Furnaces
1 Introduction
Notations
2 Furnace Parameters. 2.1 Basic Configuration of a Tank (or Hearth) Furnace
2.2 Units and Reference States
3 The Physics of Glass Furnaces
3.1 Key Indicators
3.2 From Heat Balance to Furnace Efficiency
3.3 Toward Energy Savings
3.4 Intrinsic Heat Transfer
3.5 Process Irreversibility and Rate Dependence
3.6 Reactor Working
4 Modeling of Glass Furnaces. 4.1 General Remarks
4.2 The Anatomy of a Furnace
5 Perspectives
Appendix
References
Note
9.9 Glass Cullet: Sources, Uses, and Environmental Benefits
1 Introduction
2 Basic Features of Cullet. 2.1 Categories
2.2 Glass Waste: Some Comparisons
2.3 Cullet Applications
3 Glass Recycling. 3.1 Container Glass
3.2 Flat Glass
4 Separation Technologies. 4.1 Treatment Systems
4.2 Sorting Machines
4.3 Rejects
4.4 The Particular Case of Lead Glass
4.5 Reject Minimization
5 Miscellaneous. 5.1 Cullet Quality
5.2 Redox and Color
5.3 Possible Reject Valorization
6 Environmental Aspects. 6.1 Cullet Life Cycle in the Light of Circular Economy Concept
6.2 Environmental Benefits
7 Perspectives
References
Note
9.10 Immobilization of Municipal and Industrial Waste
1 Introduction
2 Municipal Solid Waste Incineration Residues. 2.1 Conventional Combustion Plants (Grate Firing)
2.2 Bottom Ash
2.3 Fly Ash and APC Residues
2.4 Dry Discharge of Bottom Ash
2.5 Advanced Thermal Treatment by Pyrolysis and Gasification
3 Environmental Impact of MSWI Residues. 3.1 Leachability
3.2 Alteration of Glass Particles
3.3 MSWI Ashes as Aggregate Materials
4 Special Residues. 4.1 Residues of Coal (Co‐)combustion
4.2 Sewage and Dredging Sludges
4.3 Special and Hazardous Waste
5 Perspectives
References
Note
9.11 Nuclear Waste Vitrification
1 Introduction
2 History of Nuclear Waste Vitrification
3 Nuclear Glasses. 3.1 Selection Criteria for Glass Formulation
3.2 Nuclear Containment Glass Properties
4 Long‐Term Stability of Nuclear Glass. 4.1 Glass Waste Storage Context
4.2 Chemical Durability of Glass
4.3 Effect of Self‐Irradiation
4.4 Thermal Stability
4.5 Conclusion About the Long‐Term Stability of Nuclear Glass
5 Industrial Implementation of Nuclear Waste Vitrification
5.1 Industrial Processes
5.2 Industrial Vitrification Facilities for High‐Level Liquid Waste Around the World
5.2.1 France
5.2.2 United Kingdom
5.2.3 United States
5.2.4 Russia
5.2.5 Belgium
5.2.6 Germany
5.2.7 Japan
5.2.8 India
5.3 New Vitrification Projects
6 Perspectives
References
Note
9.12 The International Commission on Glass (ICG)
1 Introduction: Origins of ICG and Founding Members
Acronyms
2 ICG as an Organization. 2.1 The Constitution
2.2 Personnel
2.3 Funding and Expenditure
2.4 Web Pages
2.5 The ICG Brand
3 The ICG Committees. 3.1 The Coordinating Technical Committee and Its Technical Committees
3.2 Membership
4 Public Activities. 4.1 Congresses and Conferences
4.2 Summer and Winter Schools
4.3 Publications
4.4 Prizes Awarded
5 Perspectives
References
Note
Section X. History
References
Appendix X A Pliny’s Famous Account of the Origin of Glass in His Natural History
10.1 Obsidian in Prehistory
1 Introduction
2 Geological Formation, Properties, and Sources
3 Obsidian Use in Prehistory
4 Obsidian Studies. 4.1 Typo‐Technology
4.2 Use‐Wear Studies
4.3 Dating Methods
5 Provenance Analysis Methods
6 The Issue of Obsidian Sources: The European Region
7 Obsidian Artifacts Studied in the Western Mediterranean
8 Obsidian Trade and Socioeconomic Systems
9 Conclusions and Closing Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
10.2 Ancient Glass, Late Bronze Age
1 Introduction
2 Early Glass: From Faience to Glassmaking
3 Chemical Composition: The Analytical Standpoint
4 Material Sources. 4.1 Raw Materials
4.2 Coloring Elements
4.3 Opacifying Agents
4.4 Frit or Not?
4.5 Glass Working
5 The Issue of Provenance
6 The Isotopic Clues. 6.1 Isotopic Analyses
6.2 Lead
6.3 Strontium–Neodymium
6.4 Antimony
6.5 Copper and Boron
7 Perspectives
References
Note
10.3 Roman Glass
1 Introduction
2 Glass Synthesis. 2.1 The Importance of Natron
2.2 Melting Furnaces
3 Provenance and Location of Glassmaking
4 Color Generation and Control. 4.1 Transparent Glass
4.2 Colored and Opaque Glass
5 Secondary Production and Consumption. 5.1 The Blowing Revolution
5.2 Local Workshops
5.3 Decorative Artifacts
5.4 Windows and Mirrors
6 Recycling, Shifts in Production, and Decline
7 Perspectives
References
Note
10.4 Glass and the Philosophy of Matter in Antiquity
1 Introduction
2 Near Eastern Views on Glass. 2.1 Mesopotamia
2.2 Egypt
3 The Glass of the Greek Philosophers. 3.1 From Empedocles to Plato
3.2 Aristotle
4 Glass and Alchemy. 4.1 Art as Imitating Nature
4.2 Bolus of Mendes
4.3 Glass and Counterfeited Stones
4.4 An Elusive Art
5 The Byzantine Connection
6 Perspectives
References
Note
10.5 Ancient Glassworking
1 Introduction
2 Basic Features of Glass Shaping. 2.1 Physical Conditions
2.2 The Issue of Thermal Expansion
2.3 Molding Processes
3 Early Shaping Methods. 3.1 The Ceramic Connection
3.2 Core‐Forming
3.3 Casting
3.4 Mold Pressing
3.5 Rotary Mold‐Pressing
3.6 Rib Making
3.7 Coiling and Striping: Reticella Vessels
3.8 Miscellaneous
4 The Slow Blowing Revolution. 4.1 A Late Invention
4.2 Blowing: Pipe and Pontil
4.3 Mold Blowing
5 Decoration
6 Special Techniques. 6.1 Hellenistic and Roman Gold Glass
6.2 Cameo Glass
6.3 Cage Cups
7 Secondary Glassworking. 7.1 Workshops
7.2 Furnaces
7.3 Tools
7.4 Blowers
8 A Short Retrospective Overview. 8.1 The Spread of Glass
8.2 The Slow Rise of Glass Blowing
9 Perspectives
References
Note
10.6 Glazes and Enamels
1 Introduction
2 Preparation and Thermal Constraints
3 Composition and Microstructure. 3.1 Pottery Glaze
3.2 Metal Enamels
3.3 Micro‐ and Nano‐Structure
4 Coloration
5 Enamels. 5.1 On Metals
5.2 On Glass
6 Glazes
7 Perspectives
References
Note
10.7 Venetian Glass
1 Introduction
2 Raw Materials and Glassmaking
3 The Origins of Venetian Glass. 3.1 The Transition from Natron to Soda‐Plant Ash Glass
3.2 Torcello Mosaics
4 Venetian Renaissance Glass. 4.1 The Secrets of Cristallo
4.2 Other Renaissance Venetian Glasses. 4.2.1 Enameled Glasses
4.2.2 Lattimo
4.2.3 Colored Glass
5 Façon de Venise Glass and Competition
6 Other Italian Glassmaking Traditions
6.1 Tuscan Glass
6.2 Altare Glass
7 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
10.8 Stained Glass Windows
1 Introduction
2 Making Glass Sheets. 2.1 Cast Window Glass
2.2 Crown and Cylinder Processes
2.3 Glass Compositions
3 Social Context
4 Glass Decoration. 4.1 Body Coloration
4.2 Casing/Flashing
4.3 Enamels
4.4 Painting
4.5 Silver Staining
5 Leading
6 Later Trends: Nineteenth to Twentieth Century
7 Conservation
8 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
10.9 Furnaces and Glassmaking Processes: From Ancient Tradition to Modernity
1 Introduction
2 The Written Sources
3 Furnaces. 3.1 Traditional
3.2 Reverberatory
3.3 Regenerative
3.4 Radiative
3.5 A Revolution: The Regenerative Tank Furnaces
3.6 Toward Continuous Processes
3.7 Rolled, Printed, and Wired Glass
4 Plate Glass. 4.1 Mirrors: From World‐Famous Venice to Newborn Saint‐Gobain
4.2 A Craving for Plate Glass
4.3 Toward Continuous Processes: Bicheroux and Boudin
4.4 Short‐Lived Mechanical Feats: Continuous Grinding and Polishing
5 Container Glass. 5.1 The First Machines: Ashley and Boucher
5.2 Finishing First
5.3 The Feeding Problem
5.4 The Suction Feeder and the Owens Machine
5.5 The “Gob” Feeder, the Hartford‐Fairmont Gravity Feeder (1915)
5.6 Processing Machines Using a “Gob” Feeder
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
10.10 Glass, the Wonder Maker of Science
1 Introduction
2 The Source of Optics. 2.1 The Study of Refraction
2.2 The Marvels of Refraction
2.3 The Exploration of the Universe
2.4 Practice vs. Theory: Some Real Problems
2.5 An Astonishing Microscopic World
2.6 The Anatomy of Light
2.7 Flint Glass: The Advantages of a New Composition
2.8 Seeing Farther: The Issue of Glass Homogeneity
3 The Enabler of Chemistry. 3.1 An Alchemical Tradition
3.2 The Last Blow to Aristotle's Natural Philosophy
3.3 An Ever‐Increasing Usefulness
4 Hotness and Air Weight Measured. 4.1 Temperature: The Thermometer
4.2 Air Pressure: The End of Horror Vacui
4.3 The Springiness of the Air
4.4 Sap and Blood Barometry
5 From Electrostatics to Subatomic Physics. 5.1 The Beginnings of Electrostatics
5.2 The Womb of Subatomic Physics
6 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
10.11 A History of Glass Science
1 Introduction
2 Glass: An Impossible Definition?
3 The Origins. 3.1 The Middle‐Eastern Beginnings
3.2 The Greco‐Roman World
3.3 The Western Medieval Literature
4 The Early Modern Period (Sixteenth to Eighteenth Centuries) 4.1 An Alchemical Backdrop
4.2 Descartes: The Foundation of a Glass Science
4.3 The Wondrous Lacrymae Batavicae
5 The Chemical Revolution. 5.1 The New Chemical Researches
5.2 The Discovery of the Elements
6 The Crystal Connection. 6.1 The Early Glass Ceramics
6.2 From Melting to Crystallization
7 The Multiple Roots of Glass Science. 7.1 Composition Innovations
7.2 The Contribution of Physical Chemistry
7.3 Rupture: From Drops to Fibers
7.4 An Elusive Glass Transition
7.5 Permanent Compaction
7.6 The Relaxation Problem
7.7 The Beginnings of Structural Studies
8 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
10.12 Glass Museums
1 Introduction
2 The Invention of the Glass Museum
3 Glass Museums
4 Types of Glass Collections. 4.1 Princely Collections
4.2 Museums of Decorative Arts Versus Museums of Cultural History
4.3 Archeological Collections
4.4 Scientific and Technical Collections
4.5 Regional and Specialized Collections
5 The Corning Museum of Glass
6 Glass Museums: Purpose and Concerns
7 Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
Note
11.1 Postface – A Personal Retrospective
References
Subject Index
A
B
C
D
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
T
U
V
W
X
Z
Name Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
S
T
V
W
Y
Z
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
