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Группа авторов. Honey Bee Medicine for the Veterinary Practitioner
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Honey Bee Medicine for the Veterinary Practitioner
List of Contributors. Editors
Contributors
Acknowledgments
Honey Bee Medicine: A One Health Challenge
One Health Issue: Planetary Health (Biodiversity and Climate Change)
One Health Issue: Food Security
One Health Issue: The Global Epidemic of Antimicrobial Resistance
Our Challenge
1 Looking to Nature to Solve the Health Crisis of Honey Bees
Prologue
A Tenet of Medicine: Learn the Normal
Good Genes Versus Good Lifestyle: The Varroa Story
Good Genes
Good Lifestyle
Part 1: The Environment of a Wild Colony. Cavity Size
Wall Thickness and Thermoregulation
Propolis Envelope
Bee Microbiome
Part 2: Epidemiology for Bee Health: How Lifestyle Impacts Disease Spread
Ecological Drivers of Disease
A Critical Distinction: Vertical vs. Horizontal Disease Transmission
Vertical Transmission: Swarming
Horizontal Transmission: Bee Drift, Robbing, Forager Contact, and Contamination
Honey Bee Demographic Turnover
Lessons from the Wild Bees
Promoting Good Genes
Goal 1: Select Locally Adapted, Survivor Stock
Goal 2: Promote Drone Comb Building and Drone Mating in Congregation Areas
Goal 3: Cull Failing Colonies Before Collapse
Goal 4: Select Quality Queens and Let the Bees Requeen!
Promoting Good Lifestyle
Goal 1: Boost Rather than Disrupt Social Immunity of the Superorganism
Goal 2: Quarantine from Pests and Pathogens
Goal 3: Design Apiary as Close to Nature as Feasible
References
2 The Superorganism and Herd Health for the Honey Bee
Introduction
Part 1: The Superorganism and Swarm Intelligence
Part 2: Social Immunity: Bees as Their Own Doctors!
Task Allocation and Compartmentalization
Antimicrobial Compounds Produced by Bees
Resin Collection, Propolis, and Immune Modulation
Self‐medication in Honey Bees
Social Fever
Part 3: Herd Health for the Honey Bee
References
3 Honey Bee Anatomy
Introduction
Head. Eyes
Mouthparts
Thorax. Wings
Legs
Abdomen
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
Nervous System
Digestive and Excretory System
Glands
Reproductive System
References
4 Physiology of the Honey Bee – Principles for the Beekeeper and Veterinarian
Part 1: Comparing Vertebrates and Bees. Physiology of the Honey Bee Compared with Vertebrates
Digestive System and Metabolism
Circulatory and Respiratory Systems
Nervous System
Sense Organs
Immune System
Age Polyethism
Overwintering Biology
Temperature Regulation
Part 2: Communication in Honey Bees
Physical Communication. Waggle Dance
Tremble Dance
Shaking Dance
Chemical Communication
Queen Pheromones
Worker Pheromones
Drone Pheromones
Brood Pheromones
Acoustic Communication
Conclusion
References
5 The Honey Bee Queen
The Queen's Function in the Hive
Queen Development and Performance. Queen Larval Development
Queen Diet
Queen Mating
Queen Performance
Queen Performance vs. Colony Performance
Queen Longevity
Queen Succession
Supersedure
“Balling” of the Queen
Queen “Failure”
Swarming
Management to Minimize Swarming
Usurpation Swarms
Emergency Queen Rearing
“Laying Worker” and “Hopelessly Queenless” Colonies
Queen Status Assessment
Signs of Queenrightness, Failing Queens, and Queenlessness
Scattered Drone Cells
Queenlessness Colonies
Signs of Being in the Process of Self Requeening
Signs of Being Hopelessly Queenless
How to Tell a Drone‐Layer from a Laying Worker Colony
Odd Problems
“Spotty Brood”
Queen Replacement and Introduction
Identifying and Locating the Queen
Handling the Queen
Introduction of Queens
Introduction via Queen Cell
Wrap Up
References
Notes
6 Honey Bee Strains
German or Black Bee
Caucasian (or Gray) Bee
Hygienic Bees
Africanized Bee
Why are they Called “Killer Bees?”
Defensive Bees
Removal of Defensive (Africanized) Bees
References
7 Wild Bees: Diversity, Ecology, and Stressors of Non‐Apis Bees
Bee Diversity and Distribution
Diversity of Social Behavior
Diversity of Life Cycles
Abiotic Stressors to Wild Bees
Biotic Stressors: Pathogens and Pests
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Notes
8 Honey Bee Nutrition
Understanding the Honey Bee Superorganism
Carbohydrates vs. Other Nutrients
Nutritional Needs of the Colony Over Seasons
Colony Growth Is Not Exponential
Colony Growth Rate Compared to Vertebrates
Nutrition as a Limiting Factor to Colony Growth
Nutritional Requirements of a Hive
Carbohydrates
Protein and Amino Acids
Vitamins and Minerals
Lipids
Sterols
Other Phytochemicals
Pollen Consumption
Food Handling and Processing in the Hive
Nectar
Problems with Nectar and Honey
Toxic Nectars and Pollens
Colony Checkpoints for Avoiding Toxins
The Case of Almond Pollen
Pollen Processing in the Hive
Digestion of Pollen
Consumption of Pollen
Jelly as the Currency of Protein in the Hive
Field Assessment of Colonies' Nutritional Status. Entrance Assessment
In‐Hive Assessment
Carbohydrate Income Assessment
Protein Status Assessment
Monitoring the Jelly
Supplementary Feeding of Colonies
Supplementary Feeding of Sugar
Winter Stores
Feeding to Prevent Imminent Starvation
Feeding for Stimulation
Supplementary Feeding of Protein
Composition of Pollen Subs
Pollen Sub Feeding Tips
Bee “Health Products”
Probiotics
References
Further Reading
Notes
9 Honey Bee Microbiota and the Physiology of Antimicrobial Resistance
Overview
Antibiotics in Beekeeping
The Honey Bee Gut Microbiome. The Worker Gut Microbiome
The Queen and Drone Gut Microbiome
Natural Fluctuations in the Worker Microbiome
Strain‐Level Diversity Within the Worker Microbiome
Impact of Antibiotics on the Honey Bee Microbiome
Probiotics for Honey Bees
Other Possible Impacts of Antibiotic Treatment on Honey Bee Health. Temperature Sensitivity
Potential Impacts on Reproductive Health
Antibiotic Resistance. The Bee Gut Microbiome and Bee Bacterial Pathogens
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
10 Honey Bee Pharmacology
Introduction
Principles of Pharmacology
Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacodynamics
Pharmacogenomics
Pharmacology of the Individual Honey Bee as it Impacts the Hive Organism. Pharmacokinetics. Absorption
Distribution
Metabolism
Phase I Biotransformation
Phase II Biotransformation
Phase III Transporters
Excretion
Pharmacodynamic Considerations in the Individual Honey Bee as they Impact the Hive Organism. Specific Receptors
Specific Chemical Classes
Antimicrobials
Acaricides
Fungicides
Herbicides
Insecticides
Pharmacologic Considerations for Honey Bees as Food‐Producing Animals
Summary
References
11 Equipment and Safety
Introduction
Langstroth Hive
Bee Space
Components of a Hive
Bottom Board
Entrance Reducer
Hive Body
Frames
Specialty Frames
Queen Excluder
Inner Cover
Outer Cover
Hive Stand
Alternative Hives
Tools of the Trade
Personal Protective Equipment
Veils
Gloves
Hive Tool
Smoker
Feeders
Pollen Traps
Safety
Bee Stings
Apiary Site Selection
Pesticide Use
Summary
References
Note
12 The Apiarist
The Apiarist
Classification by Operation Size. Commercial Beekeepers. Demographics
Management
Colony Configuration
Apiary Size and Transportation
Health Monitoring
Pathogen and Pest Transmission
Visiting Apiaries
Hobby Beekeepers. Demographics
Management
Colony Configuration
Apiary Size and Transportation
Health Monitoring
Pathogen and Pest Transmission
Visiting Apiaries
Sideliner Beekeepers
Classification by Operation Type. Honey Producers
Pollinators
Queen and Package Bee Producers
Example of a Year in the Life of a Commercial Beekeeper
Summary
13 Basics of Apiary Design
Effect of Apiary Location and Design on Honey Bee Health
Considerations for Size of Beekeeping Operation
References
14 Clinical Examination of a Honey Bee Hive
Let's Open a Bee Hive
15 Veterinary Regulations
Introduction
Health Inspections
Antibiotic Control
Veterinary Feed Directive Background
Non‐medically Important Antibiotics
Antibiotic Approvals
Beekeepers' Definition of How They Use Antibiotics
Antibiotic Resistance
Withholding
Veterinary Client Patient Relationships Required for a VFD
The VFD Form
Extra Label Drug Use
How to Obtain Antibiotics
Identity of Hives
Size of the Beekeeping Operation and Duties of the Veterinarian
Honey Bee Veterinary Regulations in Canada
References
16 Medical Records
Veterinary Client Patient Relationship (VCPR)
Hive Records
Medical Records
Veterinary Feed Directives/Prescriptions
Resources
Appendix 16.1A: Veterinary ‐ Client Management Agreement
Appendix 16.1B: Sample Hive Record
17 Epidemiology and Biosecurity
Apis mellifera Disease Epidemiology
Exotic Diseases of Honey Bees
Varroa destructor
Nosemosis
Multi‐year Disease Baseline
Honey Bee Viruses
Viral Transmission
Knowledge and Management Practices as Drivers of Honey Bee Health
Biosecurity
General Management Practices for Biosecurity. Training
Record Keeping and Traceability
Apiary Placement and Signage
Sourcing
Colony Management Practices
Hive Inspections
Sanitation and Hygiene
Special Considerations for Migratory Colonies
Summary
The Role of the Veterinarian in Biosecurity
References
Appendix 17.A Beekeeping Biosecurity and Best Practices Checklist
18 Parasite Transmission Between Hives and Spillover to Non‐Apis Pollinators
Introduction
Parasite Transmission Within an Apiary
Parasite Transmission Between Apiaries
Evidence of Parasite Spillover From Apis mellifera to Non‐Apis Insects
References
19 Colony Collapse Disorder and Honey Bee Health
Introduction
Was CCD a Unique and Significant Phenomenon?
Searching for a Cause: Biotic Actors
Abiotic Causes of Honey Bee Declines
Interactive Effects
Conclusions
References
20 The Parasitic Mite Varroa destructor: History, Biology, Monitoring, and Management
Introduction
History
Biology
Mite Life History
Reproductive Phase
Phoretic Phase
Consequences of Mite Infestation
Virus Transmission
Transmission Between Colonies. Natural Modes of Transmission
Beekeeper‐Assisted Transmission
Monitoring
Variation in Mite Populations
On the Seasonality of Mites
Methods not Based on Bee Samples. Visual Inspection
Capped Brood Cell Dissection
Sticky Boards and Screened Bottom Boards
Bee Sample‐Based Methods
Sugar Shake
Alcohol Wash
Problems with Lethal Sampling Methods
Treatment
Treatment Thresholds
Chemical
Synthetic Pesticides
Organic Acids
Other Compounds
Non‐Chemical Mite Interventions. Brood Interruption by Small Hives, Swarming, and Splitting
Drone Comb Removal
Screened Bottom Boards
Treatment‐Free Beekeeping
Mite‐Resistant Bees
Conclusion
References
21 Honey Bee Viral Diseases
Introduction
Iflaviridae Family
Deformed Wing Virus
Sacbrood Virus
Slow Bee Paralysis Virus
Dicistroviridae Family
Black Queen Cell Virus
Acute Bee Paralysis Virus
Kashmir Bee Virus
Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus
Viruses in Unassigned Families
Chronic Bee Paralysis Virus
Lake Sinai Viruses
Honey Bee DNA Virus. Apis mellifera Filamentous Virus
Recently Identified Honey Bee Viruses
Bee Macula‐like Virus
Tobacco Ringspot Virus
Moku Virus
Rhabdovirus‐1 and ‐2
Multi‐virus Infection
Transmission Pathways
Viral Disease Management
Virus Isolation, Detection, and Diagnoses
References
22 Honey Bee Bacterial Diseases
Distribution
Economic Importance in North America
European Foulbrood (EFB) Etiologic Agent
Transmission
Infection
Prognosis
American Foulbrood. Etiologic Agent
Transmission
Infection
Prognosis
Diagnosis of Bacterial Diseases. Colony Evaluation for Bacterial Disease
Visual Identification
Visual Signs of EFB
Visual Signs of AFB
Odor
Differentiation from Other Diseases
Field Tests. Matchstick Test
Holst Milk Test
Commercial Field Tests
Laboratory Diagnosis
Submission of Samples to the USDA
Reporting
Treatment and Control
Colonies Identified as Sick with American Foulbrood
Colonies Identified as Sick with European Foulbrood
Colonies in the Same Yard as an Infected Colony
Colonies in High Risk Situations
Burning a Honey Bee Hive
Shook Swarm Method
Watchful Waiting
Antibiotics
Sterilization of Equipment
Prevention and Control
Other Bacterial Pathogens
Conclusion
References
23 Honey Bee Fungal Diseases
Nosema Disease. Causative Agents
Biology
Pathology and Epidemiology
Symptoms and Diagnosis
Treatment
Prevention
Chalkbrood Disease. Agent and Biology
Symptoms and Diagnosis
Pathology and Treatment
Stonebrood Disease. Agent and Biology
Symptom and Diagnosis
Pathology and Treatment
Conclusion
References
24 Honey Bee Parasites and Pests
Tracheal Mites
Wax Moths
Hive Beetles. Small Hive Beetle
Large Hive Beetle
Tropilaelaps
Asian Hornets. Asian Yellow‐Legged Hornet
Asian Giant Hornet
Ants, Wasps and Hornets, and Robbing. Ants
Wasps and Hornets
Robbing
Bears, Raccoons, Skunks and Mice. Bears
Raccoons
Skunks
Mice
Non‐Harmful Hive Commensals
References
25 Pesticides
Categorizing Pesticides
Regulation of Pesticides
Determining the Toxicity of Pesticides to Bees
Preparing for Expected Pesticide Exposure
Identifying and Reporting a Suspected Pesticide‐Related Bee‐Kill
Recovering from a Bee‐Kill
References
26 Diagnostic Sampling
Sampling for Field Analysis. American Foulbrood: Ropy Test
American Foulbrood: Holst Milk Test
American Foulbrood and European Foulbrood: Diagnostic Test Kits
Varroa Mites: Alcohol Wash and Sugar Roll Tests
Alcohol Wash Test
Sugar Roll Test
Sampling for Laboratory Analysis
American Foulbrood (AFB)
Tracheal Mites
Nosema
Pesticide Analysis
References
27 Necropsy of a Hive
Colony Phase Dynamics
Performing a Hive Necropsy
The Diagnostic Kit
Personal Protective Equipment
Seasonal Loss Analysis
Overwinter (Dormant Phase) Colony Loss
Weak Colony
Is It a Strong or a Weak Spring Colony?
Starvation
What Does Starvation Look like?
Spring Increase Phase Colony Loss
Disease Loss
How to Confirm AFB
How to Confirm EFB (Figure 27.11)
Queen Replacement
Drone Layer or Laying Workers?
Summer (Peak Population) Loss
Fall Population Decrease Phase
What Does PMBS Look like?
Parasitic Mite Brood Syndrome
Conclusion
References
28 Common Husbandry Issues
Some Common Questions Regarding Starting Beekeeping
Common Mistakes
Euthanizing a Colony
Spring Issues and Considerations
(Largely) Summer‐Early Fall Issues and Considerations
Fall Issues and Considerations
Overwintering
References
Further Reading
29 Queen Rearing and Bee Breeding
US Commercial Queen Rearing Industry
Benefits of Queen Rearing
Queen Cell Building
Grafting
Equipment Needed
Grafting Process
Banking Queens
Queen Piping
Keeping Good Records
Selective Breeding
Drones
Basic Bee Genetics
Instrumental Insemination
References
30 The Future Direction of Honey Bee Veterinary Medicine
Honey Bee Medicine. Resources. Websites
University Bee Labs
Beekeeping Courses and Mentoring Are Offered at State (or provincial) and Local Bee Clubs
State Dept. of Agriculture Beekeeper sites
Provincial Government Apiculture Sites
Laws and Legal Information on Bees and Honey
Books
Suppliers
Notes on Editors and Contributors. Editors
Contributors
Index. a
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