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Группа авторов. Surface Science and Adhesion in Cosmetics
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Surface Science and Adhesion in Cosmetics
Preface
1. Lip Biophysical Properties and Characterization Methods for Long-Wear Lipsticks
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Overview of Lip Anatomy & Lip Surface Properties. 1.2.1 Lip Anatomy and Biophysical Properties
1.2.2 Surface Properties of the Lips
1.3 In Vitro Evaluation Methods for Lipsticks
1.3.1 Stability Testing of Lipstick Formulations
1.3.2 Physical Properties of Lipstick Formulations. 1.3.2.1 Lipstick Hardness and Deposition
1.3.2.2 Lipstick Wear Assays. 1.3.2.2.1 Adsorption by Contact Angle Measurements
1.3.2.2.2 Rub Test with Oil and Water
1.3.2.2.3 Adhesion with Scotch® Tape
1.3.2.2.4 Adhesion Testing
1.3.2.3 Lipstick Cohesion Test
1.3.2.4 Tack Testing
1.3.2.5 Thermal Analysis of Lipsticks
1.3.3 Visual Properties of Lipstick Formulations. 1.3.3.1 Transfer Resistance Test
1.3.3.2 Gloss Measurement
1.4 Relation of In Vitro Analysis with Consumer Sensory Testing
1.5 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
2. Effect of Cosmetic Oils on Lipstick Structure and Its Deposit
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Natural Waxes, Their Physical Properties and Potential Applications
2.3 Factors Affecting Oil-Wax Structures
2.3.1 Factors Affecting Oil-Wax Structures: Wax Type. 2.3.1.1 Non-Natural Waxes
2.3.1.2 Natural Waxes
2.3.2 Factors Affecting Oil-Wax Structures: Oil Polarity
2.3.3 Factors Affecting Oil-Wax Structures: Oil Viscosity
2.3.4 Factors Affecting Oil-Wax Structures: Cooling Rate
2.4 Study On Model Oil-Wax System Containing Polyethylene Wax
2.4.1 Materials
2.4.2 Measurements. 2.4.2.1 Oil Viscosity
2.4.2.2 Oil Polarity by Relative Permittivity
2.4.2.3 Hardness of Lipsticks
2.4.2.4 Amount and Thickness of Lipstick Deposit on Bioskin
2.4.2.5 Wax Crystallization Study
2.4.2.6 Morphology of Wax Structure by SEM
2.5 Results and Discussion. 2.5.1 Factors Affecting Lipstick Structure: Oil Viscosity
2.5.2 Factors Affecting Lipstick Structure: Oil Polarity
2.5.3 Factors Affecting Lipstick Structure: Wax Amount
2.5.4 Influence of Wax-Oil Lipstick Structure on its Deposition and Sensorial Perception
2.6 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
3. UV Curing of Nail Gels by Light Emitting Diode (LED) and Fluorescent (FL) Light Sources
3.1 Introduction
3.2 UV Cure Chemistry
3.2.1 Initiation Reaction
3.2.2 Propagation Reaction
3.2.3 Chain Transfer Reaction
3.2.4 Termination Reaction
3.2.5 Photoinitiation
3.3 UV Cure Light Sources: Gallium-Doped Low-Wattage Long Wavelength Fluorescent (FL) Bulbs and Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 3.3.1 UV Light Spectrum
3.3.2 Matching the PI with the UV Light Source and Pigments Absorption/Transmission
3.4 UV Cure Oxygen Inhibition Issues
3.5 Special Considerations for the Use of UV Nail Gel Technology Due to Oxygen Inhibition
3.5.1 UV Nail Gel Cure Units: GA-FL and LED
3.5.2 UV Cure and Free Radical Oxygen Inhibition
3.5.3 Methods for Mitigating Oxygen Inhibition During UV Cure
3.5.4 Combinatorial Chemistry Technique Used to Mitigate Oxygen Inhibition for Low Energy UV-A Cure Resulting in Tack-Free Surfaces
3.6 How to Formulate a UV-A Cure Nail Gel
3.6.1 Formulating with (Meth) Acrylate Monomers
3.6.2 Formulating with the Proper Photoinitiator
3.7 Formulation of UV Nail Gels with 100% Solids UV Cure Oligomers and Monomers
3.7.1 Formulation of a UV Nail Gel Using a UV Cure Polyurethane Dispersion (UV-PUD)
3.7.2 Bio-Based UV Cured Nail Gel Materials
3.8 Human Nail Mechanical and Surface Free Energy Properties
3.9 Adhesion of UV Nail Gel to the Human Nail Plate
3.10 Removal of the UV Nail Gel From the Human Nail Plate
3.11 Alternative Uses of UV Cured Nail Gels as a Solution to Remedy Onychomycosis (Toenail Fungus)
3.12 UV-Cured Nail Gel Safety
3.13 Prospects on UV Nail Gels
3.14 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
4. Rheological Properties Influence Tackiness, Application and Performance of Nail Polish/Lacquer Formulations
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Typical Ingredients of a Nail Polish Formulation
4.3 Rheological Response of Nail Polishes: Background
4.4 Methods for Characterizing Flow Behavior and Application to Nail Polishes. 4.4.1 Shear Rheology Characterization and Tack Test
4.4.2 Application of Nail Paints: Brush Loading, Sagging, Nail Coating, and Dispensing
4.4.3 Extensional Rheology Characterization using Dripping-onto-Substrate (DoS) Rheometry
4.5 Materials: Ingredients of the Twelve Nail Polishes
4.6 Results and Discussion. 4.6.1 Shear Rheology of Twelve Nail Polishes
4.6.2 Brush Loading and Sagging
4.6.3 Brush Application
4.6.4 Tack Test of Nail Lacquers
4.6.5 Dripping Nail Polish after Automated Brush Loading
4.6.6 Capillarity-Driven Pinching Dynamics and Extensional Rheology of Nail Polishes
4.7 Summary and Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
5. Use of Advanced Silicone Materials in Long-Lasting Cosmetics
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Adhesion to Skin
5.2.1 Skin as a Substrate for Adhesion
5.2.1.1 Structure of Human Skin
5.2.1.2 Skin Surface Physicochemical Properties
5.2.1.2.1 Contact Angle and Surface Free Energy
5.2.1.2.2 Critical Surface Tension
5.2.1.3 Skin Mechanical Properties
5.3 Formulation Strategies for Long-Lasting Cosmetics
5.3.1 Silicones in Cosmetic Products
5.3.2 Structure-Property Relation of Silicones
5.4 Advanced Silicone Materials for Long-Wear Cosmetics
5.4.1 Silicone MQ Resins in Color Cosmetics
5.4.1.1 MQ Resin Structure and Properties
5.4.1.2 MQ Resin as a Tackifier for Long-Wear Benefits
5.4.1.2.1 Molecular Interactions in MQ Resin/PDMS Blend
5.4.1.2.2 Viscoelastic Properties of MQ/PDMS Blend
5.4.1.2.3 Polymer Properties Affecting MQ/Polymer Blend Performance
5.4.2 Silsesquioxane Resins in Long-Wear Cosmetics
5.4.3 Silicone Acrylate Copolymers in Long-Wear Cosmetics
5.4.3.1 Hybrid Silicone Acrylate Emulsion for Long-Wear Cosmetics
5.4.3.2 Solvent-Borne Hybrid Silicone Acrylate Copolymers
5.4.4 Ionic Functionalized Silicones for Long-Wear Cosmetics
5.5 Summary and Prospective Film-Formers for Long-Wear Cosmetics
Acknowledgements
References
6. Advances in the Chemical Structure of the Hair Surface, Surface Forces and Interactions
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Structure of Hair and the Outermost Surface
6.3 Chemical and Physical Modifications of the Hair Surface
6.4 Local Physico-Chemical Understanding of the Hair Surface
6.4.1 Mapping the Hair Surface Chemistry
6.4.2 Forces at the Surface of Hair
6.4.3 Interaction with Cosmetic Actives
6.5 Macroscopic Understanding of the Chemical Nature of the Hair Surface
6.6 Impact of the Hair Chemical Nature on Sensorial and Consumer Benefits
6.7 Prospects
6.8 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
7. AFM for Hair Surface Characterisation
7.1 Hair Structure
7.2 Elements of AFM
7.2.1 Imaging - Topography
7.2.2 Force Measurements Using the AFM
7.2.2.1 Force Curves
7.2.2.2 Friction/Lateral Force
7.2.2.3 Elastic Theory and Nanoindentation
7.2.3 Requirements for Good Use of AFM – Calibration
7.3 The Use of AFM to Characterize the Hair Surface/Cuticle. 7.3.1 Hair Dimensions and Considerations
7.3.2 Hair Surface Topography
7.3.3 Swelling
7.3.4 Friction
7.3.5 Adhesion
7.3.6 Charge Density Mapping - Tapping
7.3.7 Nanoindentation
7.4 Cosmetic Treatment (e.g. Bleaching) as Shown by AFM
7.5 Summary
References
8. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) as a Surface Characterization Tool for Hair, Skin, and Cosmetic Deposition
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Atomic Force Microscopy Compared to Other Microscopy Techniques
8.3 The Principles of Atomic Force Microscopy
8.4 A Brief History of Hair Surface Investigation via Atomic Force Microscopy
8.5 Lateral Force Microscopy (LFM) of the Hair Surface
8.6 Adhesion at the Nanoscale via AFM
8.7 Elastic Modulus Measurement via AFM
8.8 Hair Studies via AFM. 8.8.1 Nanomechanical Properties of the Hair Surface
8.8.2 Thickness of Deposited Films on the Hair Surface
8.8.3 Inferring the Film Thickness of Polymeric Formulations on the Hair Surface from Nanomechanical Measurements
8.8.4 Nanomechanical Analysis of a Commercial Long-Lasting Formulation on the Hair Surface
8.8.5 Nanoscale Characterization of the Impact of Commercial Hair Care Products on the Hair Fiber Interior
8.9 Skin Studies via AFM. 8.9.1 Skin Surface Roughness and Skin Elastic Modulus
8.9.2 Effect of Cosmetic Deposition on Skin
8.9.3 Makeup Formulations from Two Competing Cosmetic Manufacturers on Non-Skin Substrate
8.9.4 Scaling Up Skin Cosmetics Formulations from Laboratory to Large-Scale Manufacturing
8.9.5 Interaction of Components in Skin Cosmetic Polymer Blends
8.10 Summary and Prospects
References
9. Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry as a Surface Analysis Method for Hair, Skin, and Cosmetics
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) 9.2.1 Fundamentals
9.2.2 Depth Resolution in SIMS: Key to Unlocking Topmost Surface Analysis
9.2.3 Static Versus Dynamic Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
9.2.4 Quantification in SIMS
9.2.5 SIMS Spectrometers
9.2.6 Primary and Analytical Ion Beams
9.3 Studying the Skin via TOF-SIMS. 9.3.1 Imaging the Skin Barrier Properties
9.3.2 Chemical Changes Due to Skin Aging via TOF-SIMS
9.3.3 Penetration of Active Ingredients through the Human Skin
9.3.4 Fatty Acids as Penetration Enhancers as Evaluated with TOF-SIMS
9.4 Studying the Hair Via TOF-SIMS. 9.4.1 Depth-Profiling the Hair Fiber Surface Directly Via Ion Beam Sputtering
9.4.2 Identifying Unknown Chemistries on the Hair Fiber Surface with TOF-SIMS
9.4.3 Hair Crosslinking Materials Analysis via TOF-SIMS
9.4.3.1 A Kinetic Study of Thin Film Crosslinking on Silicon Wafer Substrate by TOF-SIMS Depth-Profiling
9.4.3.2 Detecting Long-Lasting, Shampoo-Resistant Crosslinked Thin Film on the Silicon Wafer Substrate
9.4.3.3 Long-Lasting, Shampoo-Resistant Crosslinked Material on the Hair Substrate
9.5 Future Prospects
References
10. Surface Tensiometry Approach to Characterize Cosmetic Products in the Beauty Sector
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Peels
10.2.1 Characterization of the Formulations for Skin Peels
10.2.1.1 Surface Tension Approach to the Study of Chemical Peels for Face Skin Treatments
10.3 Face Masks
10.3.1 Constituents of Face Masks. 10.3.1.1 Honey
10.3.1.2 Plant Oils
10.3.1.3 Egg White
10.3.1.4 Lavender Oil
10.3.1.5 Bentonite Clay
10.3.2 Surface Tensiometry Approach to the Study of Face Skin Masks
10.4 Serums
10.4.1 Surface Tensiometry Approach to the Study of Serums for Skin Applications
10.5 Eye Contour Creams
10.5.1 Surface Tensiometry Approach to the Study of Eye Contour Creams
10.6 Mascara
10.6.1 Characterization of Mascara
10.6.1.1 Surface Tensiometry Approach to the Study of Mascara
10.7 Eyeshadows
10.7.1 Surface Tensiometry Approach to the Study of Eyeshadows
10.8 Lipsticks
10.8.1 Surface Tensiometry Approach to the Study of Lipsticks
10.9 Foundation
10.9.1 Surface Tensiometry Approach to the Study of Face Skin Foundation
10.10 Anti-Aging Formulations
10.10.1 Surface Tension Approach to the Study of Anti-Aging Formulations
10.11 Summary
Acknowledgement
References
11. Spreading of Hairsprays on Hair
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Background on Interaction of Liquid Droplets with Fibers
11.2.1 Droplet Shapes in Relation to Fiber Diameter
11.2.2 Absorption of Liquids into Hair Assemblies
11.3 Materials and Experimental Methods. 11.3.1 Materials
11.3.2 Methods. 11.3.2.1 Imaging System
11.3.2.2 The Spreading Setup
11.4 Results and Discussion. 11.4.1 Instability of Liquid Sprays on Hair
11.4.2 Synthetic and Hair Fiber Comparison
11.4.3 Holding Spray on One Hair Fiber
11.4.4 Holding Spray on Parallel Hair Fibers
11.4.5 Holding Spray on Crossing Hair Fibers
11.4.6 Spray on Three Crossing Hairs with a Load of 10 g
11.4.7 Holding Spray on One Bleached Hair Fiber
11.4.8 Holding Spray on Two Bleached Hair Fibers Parallel to Each Other
11.4.9 Holding Spray on Two Crossing Bleached Hair Fibers
11.5 General Observations on the Behavior of Holding Spray on Hair
11.6 Shine Spray on One Bleached Hair Fiber
11.7 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
12. Quantification of the Color Transfer from Long-Wear Face Foundation Products: The Relevance of Wettability
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Experiments. 12.2.1 Contact Angle Measurement
12.2.2.1 Foundation Transfer – In Vitro
12.2.2.2 Foundation Transfer – In Vivo
12.2.2.3 Image Analysis of Foundation Transfer
12.3 Results and Discussion. 12.3.1 Contact Angle of Water on Polyester Substrate and Deposited Foundations
12.3.2 Contact Angle of Water on Bio Skin Substrate and Deposited Foundations
12.3.3 In Vitro Foundation Transfer from Polyester Application Substrate
12.3.4 In Vitro Foundation Transfer from Bio Skin Application Substrate
12.3.5 In Vitro Foundation Transfer – Impact of Foundation Shade
12.3.6 In Vivo Foundation Transfer
12.4 Summary and Perspectives
Acknowledgments
References
13. Interaction of Polyelectrolytes and Surfactants on Hair Surfaces. Deposits and their Characterization
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Hair Structure and its External Surface. 13.2.1 Hair Structure
13.2.2 Chemical Composition of Hair
13.2.3 Physico-Chemical Heterogeneity of the Cuticle
13.2.4 Hair Surface and its Interaction with Polyelectrolytes
13.3 Experimental Approaches for the Evaluation of the Deposition of Polyelectrolyte-Surfactant Systems onto Model Surfaces
13.3.1 Model Surfaces
13.3.2 Approaches for Quantitative Study of the Adsorption Process
13.3.3 A Typical Formulation of a Hair Conditioner
13.3.4 Bulk Behavior of Polyelectrolyte - Surfactant Mixtures
13.3.5 Polyelectrolyte–Surfactant Mixtures Adsorbed onto Solid Surfaces
13.3.6 Deposition Enhanced by Dilution
13.4 Theoretical Modelling of Polyelectrolyte-Surfactant Mixtures
13.4.1 Bulk Calculations
13.4.2 Surface Calculations
13.5 Prospects
13.6 Summary
Acknowledgements
References
14. Adhesion Aspect and Film-Forming Properties of Hydrocarbon Polymers-Based Lipsticks
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Synthesis and Characterization of the Model Oil Compatible Polymers Dispersions. 14.2.1 Chemical Composition of Non-Aqueous Polymer Dispersions
14.2.2 Physical Properties of Non-Aqueous Polymer Dispersions. 14.2.2.1 Molecular Weight and Size of Polymer Aggregates
14.2.2.2 Glass/Vitreous Physical Properties of Polymer Dispersion - Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
14.2.2.3 Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)
14.2.2.4 Mechanical Properties of Films Cast from Polymer Dispersion
14.2.2.5 Morphology of NAD Samples by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
14.2.2.6 Surface Nanostructure of Films Cast From Polymer by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
14.2.2.6.1 Topography & Surface Roughness
14.2.2.6.2 Nanomechanical Property
14.2.2.6.3 Influence of Polymer Composition on Nanoadhesion The monomer type in the copolymer composition also affects the adhesion property of the NAD thin films as seen in Figure 14.12. Replacing the methyl acrylate by either ethyl acrylate or acrylic acid increased the adhesion force of the thin film as measured by atomic force microscopy (AFM), thus improving the adhesion of the thin film to the substrate. The adhesion force is inversely related to the thin film’s elastic modulus, and NAD - 1 has the lowest adhesion force and NAD - 3 has the highest adhesion force. 14.2.3 Thin Film Property and Adhesion Aspects
14.2.3.1 Surface Free Energy of NAD Films
14.2.3.2 Sebum and Water Resistance
14.2.3.2.1 Spreading and Wetting of Water and Sebum on NAD Film Surfaces
14.2.3.2.2 Sebum and Water Sensitivities of NAD Films
14.2.3.2.3 Wear and Tack of NAD Films
14.2.3.2.4 Gloss of NAD Films
14.3 NADs as Film-Formers for Long-Wear, Non-Transfer Lipstick
14.3.1 In-Vitro Evaluations
14.3.2 In-Vivo Evaluation
14.4 Summary and Prospects
Acknowledgements
Annex. Synthesis Procedure for Non-Aqueous Polymer Dispersions
References
15. Factors Enhancing Adhesion of Color Cosmetic Products to Skin: The Role of Pigments and Fillers
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Overview of Pigments: Basic Physico-chemical Considerations in Long-Wear Color Cosmetics
15.2.1 Pigments and Fillers in Long-Wear Color Cosmetics
15.2.1.1 Inorganic Pigments
15.2.1.2 Organic Pigments in Long-Wear Color Cosmetics
15.2.1.3 Factors Affecting Adhesion of Long-Wear Cosmetics
15.2.1.4 Importance of Pigment Wetting and Surface Treatment in a Color Dispersion in Long-Wear Cosmetics
15.2.1.5 Factors Affecting the Long-Lasting Color in Long-Wear Color Cosmetics: Dispersion of Treated Pigments
15.2.1.6 Factors Affecting Adhesion of Film-Formers: Functional Fillers
15.3 Factors Affecting Adhesion of Long-Wear Color Cosmetics
15.3.1 Long-Wear Liquid Foundation
15.3.2 Long-Wear Powders. 15.3.2.1 Oil Absorbent and Water Absorbent Systems
15.3.2.2 Oil Repellent and Water Repellent Systems
15.3.3 Long-Wear Eye Shadow
15.3.4 Long-Wear and Transfer-Resistant Lipsticks
15.3.4.1 Pigments Used in Long-Wear Lip Products
15.3.4.2 Typical Fillers Used in Long-Wear Lipstick
15.3.5 Long-Wear Nail Polish. 15.3.5.1 Conventional and UV Nail Polish
15.3.5.2 Water-Based Nail Polish
15.3.6 Long-Wear Mascara and Eyeliner
15.3.6.1 Pigments and Fillers Used in Long-Wear Mascara
15.3.6.2 Long-Wear Mascara
15.4 Summary and Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
16. Factors Affecting Cosmetics Adhesion to Facial Skin
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Factors Affecting Adhesion to Skin: Skin Substrate Properties
16.2.1 Skin Types
16.2.2 Surface Free Energy of Skin
16.2.3 Skin Young’s Modulus
16.2.4 Skin Surface Roughness
16.2.5 Wetting and Spreading of Sebum and Sweat on Human Skin
16.3 Factors Affecting Adhesion to Skin: Formulation Components
16.3.1 Volatile Fluids
16.3.2 Treated Pigments
16.3.2.1 Silicone Surface Treatment
16.3.2.2 Amino Acid Surface Treatment
16.3.2.3 Silane Surface Treatment
16.3.2.4 Organo-titanate Surface Treatment
16.3.2.5 Hybrid Surface Treatment Chemistries
16.3.2.6 Surface Treatment Chemistry Affects Formulation Performance
16.3.3 Film-Formers
16.3.3.1 MQ Silicone Resins
16.3.3.2 T-Propyl Silicone Resin
16.3.3.3 Silicone Acrylates
16.3.3.4 MQ/Dimethicone Hybrids
16.3.4 Emulsifiers. 16.3.4.1 Silicone Emulsifiers
16.3.4.2 Non-Silicone Emulsifiers
16.3.5 Fillers
16.4 Factors Affecting Adhesion to Skin: Combination of Film-Formers and Emulsifiers
16.4.1 Combination of MQ Resin and Silicone Emulsifier
16.4.2 Combination of Silicone Acrylate and Silicone Emulsifier
16.5 Summary and Prospects
Acknowledgements
References
17. Adhesion Aspect in Semi-Permanent Mascara
17.1 Introduction. 17.1.1 History of Mascara - Invention of the Mascara
17.1.2 Birth of the First Mascara
17.2 Structure of Eyelash and Eye Lid: An Overview
17.3 Types of Mascaras
17.4 Components in Mascara Formulations
17.5 Long-Wear Mascaras
17.5.1 One-Day Wear Mascara
17.5.2 Semi-Permanent Mascara (3 - 5-Day Wear)
17.5.3 Micropigmentation/Lash Tinting (30-Day Wear or Longer)
17.6 Evaluation Methods for Long-Wear Mascara. 17.6.1 In Vitro Evaluation
17.6.2 In Vivo Evaluation by Expert Panels or Consumers
17.7 Factors Affecting Adhesion of Mascara to an Eyelash
17.7.1 Factors Affecting Adhesion of Mascara to Eyelash: Mascara Composition
17.7.1.1 Film-Formers
17.7.1.1.1 Trimethylsiloxysilicate Resins
17.7.1.1.2 Rosin Esters
17.7.1.1.3 Latex
17.7.1.2 Critical Pigment Volume Concentration (CPVC)
17.7.2 Factors Affecting Adhesion of Mascara to Eyelash: Rheology of Mascara
17.7.2.1 Bulk Rheology of Long-Wear Mascara Formulation
17.7.2.2 Flow Property of Long-Wear Mascara Formulations
17.7.3 Factors Affecting Adhesion of Mascara to Eyelash: Surface Property of Mascara Deposit. 17.7.3.1 Spreading and Wetting of Long-Wear Mascara on Eyelash
17.7.3.2 Deposition of Mascara on Eyelash
17.7.3.3 Internal Stress
17.7.3.4 Sebum/Sweat/Water Resistance
17.7.4 Factors Affecting Adhesion of Mascara to Eyelash: Mechanical Property of Mascara Deposit
17.8 Removability of Mascara
17.9 Summary and Prospects
Acknowledgments
References
18. Lipstick Adhesion Measurement
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Definition of Adhesion
18.3 Sensory Metrology: Subjective Methods
18.3.1 Self-Assessment Tests (Consumer Tests)
18.3.2 Tests with an Experimenter
18.3.3 Tests with an Instrumental Method
18.4 Mechanical Tests: Objective Methods
18.5 Correlation Between Sensory and Instrumental Tests
18.6 Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Index
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