Оглавление
Группа авторов. Zoo and Wild Animal Dentistry
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Zoo and Wild Animal Dentistry
List of Contributors
Foreword
About Peter Emily
1982
2005: The beginning of the Peter Emily International Veterinary Dental Foundation
Acknowledgements
From Peter Emily
From Edward Eisner
Introduction
Periodontal Disease
1 History of Veterinary Dentistry, Including Development of Oral and Dental Treatment of Wild and Zoo, Safari Park and Refuge Animals
2 Odontology : A History of Teeth
Early Evolution
Enamel
Dental Evolution
Molar Evolution
References
3 Special Considerations Regarding Equipment and Instruments
4 Dental Form and Function as it Relates to Dental Therapy of Wild Animals
References
5 Carnivore Dental Therapy
5A. Conventional (Standard/Normograde) Endodontics Overview
5A
Atypical Tiger Apical Anatomy
Bleeding Canals
Posterior Endodontics
Mineral Trioxide Aggregate (MTA)
Pulpotomies
Apexification/Apexigenisis
5B Surgical Endodontics
Mandibular Canine Fistulas
Extra‐Oral Access
Fistulas. Maxillary Canine Fistulas
A surgical endodontic case of an upper canine tooth
A surgical endodontic case of a lower canine tooth
5C Periodontics
Tumors
5D Caries and Endodontic Access Preparation and Restoration
Prosthodontic Crown Coverage
5E Combined Endodontic‐Periodontal Therapy
Case of Repairing a Crown Root Fracture
Case of a Deep Infra‐Bony Pocket
5F Oral Surgery. Extraction
Extraction Procedures are Similar for Most Carnivores
Extraction Equipment that can Facilitate Successful Large Carnivore Extractions are (see Figures 5F.1–5F.4)
A Case of Surgical Extraction (see Figures 5F.5.1–5F.5.8)
Other Surgical Considerations
Case of an Orthodontic Problem Treated by Surgical Extraction to Alleviate Traumatic Occlusion in a Tiger (see Figures 5F.6.1–5F.6.11)
Case of a Double Soft Tissue Flap Repair of a Large Oronasal Fistula in a Male African Lion (see Figures 5F.7.1–5F.7.11)
Fracture Management
6A. Standard and Surgical Endodontics
Root Canal Therapy in Herbivores
Posterior Endodontic Procedure
Reference
7 Marsupial and Herbivore Abscesses
8 Elephant Dentistry
8A Tusk Therapy for Hog, Walrus, Elephant and Hippopotamus
Hog and Pig Tusk Therapy
Walrus Tusk Therapy
Elephant Tusk Therapy
Molar Extraction
Hippopotamus Tusk Therapy. Incisor and Canine Endodontic Therapy
Anesthetic Tip
Hippopotamus Vital Pulpotomy Procedure
8B Practical Elephant Dentistry
Introduction
Dental Pathology Diagnosis
Anesthetic Considerations for Elephant Dentistry
Instrumentarium
Surgical Equipment
Common Dental Pathology of Elephants Requiring Intervention. Tusk Fractures
Molar Tooth Retention
Dental Procedures for Elephants. Partial Pulpectomies
Molar Tooth Extractions
Tusk Extractions
References
9A. Endodontics
9B Caries and Restorative Dentistry
Restorative Procedures. Access and Dental Caries Restorations (See Figures 9B.1–9B.9b)
9c Periodontal Disease
Bone Resorption
Reference
10 Avian Fractured and Maloccluded Beaks
10A Beak Fracture Repair : Materials and Methods
A Case of an Ibis with a Fractured and Lost Gnathotheca (Lower Beak) Segment (See Figures 10A.1.1–10A.1.6)
A Case of a Goose with a Lost Rhinotheca (Upper Beak) Segment (See Figures 10A.2.1–10A.2.6)
10B Orthobeakics
Equilibration
Case of a Toucan Malocclusion (See Figures 10B.1.1–10B.1.4)
A Case of Cross‐Beak in a Great Horned Owl (See Figures 10B.2.1–10B.2.3)
A Case of a Hornbill with a Damaged Rhinotheca (Upper Beak) (See Figures 10B.3.1–10B.3.9)
10C Beak Repair for Amphibians. A Case of an Amphibian with a Lost Mandibular Beak Segment (See Figures 10C.1–10C.5)
10D Beakistry : Orthognathic Corrections and Surgical Repair of Avian Beaks
Introduction
Anatomy and Function
Occlusal Biomechanical Aspects
Diagnostic Methods. Imaging
Laboratory Diagnosis
Beak and Oral Cavity Disorders and Treatment. General Considerations
Overgrowth and Beak Deviations. Overgrowth
Scissors Beak
Brachygnathism and Prognathism
Orthognathic Corrections
Beak Traumas and Surgical Corrections
Beak Fractures
Mandibular Symphyseal Diastasis
Beak Avulsion
General Surgical Repair
Beak Prosthesis
3D Beak Prosthesis
Acknowledgments
References
11 Marine Mammal Dentistry
Introduction. General Tooth Structure
Adult Dental Formulas for Some Marine Mammals
Disease Conditions
Supernumerary Teeth
Periodontal Disease
Fractured Teeth
Fractured Jaws in Dolphins
Oral Examination
California Sea Lion Chart
Digital Intraoral Radiology
Radiographic interpretation. Periodontal Disease
Endodontic Disease
Treatments for Fractured Teeth. Endodontics
Exodontics. Instrumentation and Materials
Conclusion
References
12 Practical Anesthesia for Captive Wild Animals
Anesthetic Drug Protocols
Large Felids Such as Tiger, Lion, Jaguar, Leopard, Mountain Lion and Cheetah
Small Felids Such as Lynx, Bobcat, Serval, Ocelot, Caracal, Fishing Cat, and Pallas Cat, etc
Primates Including Prosimians, Monkeys, Lesser Apes and Great Apes
Canids
Hyenids
Ursids
Ungulates
Odd‐Toed Ungulates Include: Equidae, Rhinocerotidae and Tapiridae
Even‐Toed Ruminant Ungulates Include: Bovidae, Cervidae, Giraffidae
Even‐Toed Non‐ruminant Ungulates Include: Hippopotamidae, Suidae, Camelidae
Camelids
Procyonids, Mustelids, Viverrids
Pinnipeds Including: Phocids and Otariids
Lagomorphs and Macropods
Rodentia
Aves
Summary
Suggested Reading
13 Carnivores : Families: Felid, Bear, Canid, Racoon, Weasel, Civet, Hyena. Mandibular Function/Jaw Action
Felidae: The Cat Family
Felidae Masticate in a Tilted Sideway Motion. Bite Force
The Seven Lynx Species
13A Big Cats. Bobcat (Lynx Rufus) Acinonox: (North America). The Smallest of the Lynx
Canadian (Lynx) Acinonox; the Largest of the Lynx
Caracal (African Lynx) Acinonox
European Lynx Acinonox (The Middle Size of the Lynx)
Cheetah (Acinonox – Africa)
Cougar (Mountain Lion, Puma) (North America)
Melanotic Cougar (Panther)
Jaguar (South America)
Amelanotic Leopard (Africa)
Clouded Leopard (Southeast Asia to China)
Melanotic Leopard
Snow Leopard (Central and Southeast Asia)
Somalian Leopard (Africa)
Liger (Sterile Hybrid of Tiger (Panthera tigris)/African Lion (Panthera leo))
Lion (African) (Africa)
Serval (Africa)
Tiger (Central and Western Asia)
References
13B Small Cats. African Wild Cat
Domestic Cat (Worldwide)
Fishing Cat (Asia)
Jungle Cat (Middle East, Asia, China)
Ocelot (Southwest United States, Mexico, Central, and South America)
Pallas Cat (Manul) (Central Asia)
Savanah (F1 Hybrid: Serval and Domestic Cat)
References
14 The Bear Family
14A. Big Bears. American Black Bear/Brown Bear (Smallest of the American Bears) (North America)
Cinnamon Bear (Cinnamon‐Colored Subspecies of the Black Bear with the Same Dental Anatomy)
Grizzly Bear (Omnivore) (North America)
Himalayan Bear (Asian Bear)
Kodiak Bear (Omnivore: Phenotypical Grizzly) (Alaska)
Polar Bear (Primarily Carnivore) (Arctic Circle)
Spectacled Bear (South America)
Sun Bear (Southeast Asia)
References
14B Small Bears. Sloth Bear (Asia)
References
15 The Primates
Primates
References
15A Lower Primates: Prosimians : Prosimii – Long Face, Prominent Whiskers, Slightly Sideways‐Looking Eyes, Nocturnal. Aye Aye (Africa – Madagascar) Daubentoniidae Aye Aye: Rarest Primate, Not Closely Related to Other Lemurs (Africa)
Bush Baby (Africa)
Indri (Indrisoid Lemurs) (Africa – Madagascar)
Lemurs (Madagascar)
Red‐Ruffed Lemur (Madagascar)
Flying Lemurs Philippine Colugo (S. Thailand, Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo Flying Lemur
Loris (Asia, Africa)
Potto (Africa)
Sifaka (Madagascar)
Tarsier (Southeast Asia)
References
15B Higher Primates. New World Monkeys. Suborder Anthropoidea 36 Teeth Prehensile Tails
Marmosets (Central and South America) Cotton‐Topped Marmoset
Tamarin (Brazil) Golden Lion Tamarin (Golden Marmoset)
Emperor Tamarin (Peru, Bolivia, Brazil)
Capuchin‐Like Monkeys (Central and South America)
Capuchin Monkey (AKA “Organ Grinder” Monkey)
Hooded Capuchin (Parguay, Bolivia, Argentina, Brazil)
Howler Monkey (Central and South America)
Red‐Faced Warkari (Brazil)
Spider Monkey (Mexico to Brazil)
Wooly Monkey (South America)
Old World Monkeys (Africa and Asia)
Colobus Old World and Leaf Monkeys
Colobus Monkey
Leaf Monkeys (Indonesia)
Guenons, Macaques (Rhesus), and Baboons (Africa)
Wolf's Guenon (Wolf's Mona Monkey) (Central Africa)
Macaque (Africa)
Rhesus Macaque (Rhesus Monkey)
Baboons (Popios) (Species in Various Areas of Africa)
Chacma Baboon (Savannah, Olive, Yellow, and Common Baboon) (Africa)
Olive Baboon
Yellow Baboon
Mandrill (Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and Congo)
Proboscus Monkey (Kalimantan [Borneo])
Vervet (Grivet Monkey, Green Monkey) (Southern Africa)
APES Suborder Anthropoidea: Have wide open apices – must verify endodontic health with radiographs. Lesser Apes. Gibbon: A Distinct Family Closely Related to the Pongidae (Africa)
Siamang (Indonesia, Malaya, and Thailand)
Great Apes
Bonobo (Pigmy Chimpanzee)
Chimpanzees (Most Closely Related to Humans) (West and Central Africa)
Gorilla (Central Africa)
Human (Modern Man)
Orangutan (Borneo and Sumatra [Indonesia])
References
16 Tree Shrews
Common Tree Shrew (South Malaysia, Indonesia, and Philippines)
Reference
17 The Dog Family
African Wild Dog (African Painted Dog)
Coyote (North America)
Dhole (Asiatic Wild Dog, Indian Wild Dog)
Dingo (Australia)
Domestic Dog (Various Breeds Worldwide)
Foxes
Arctic Fox
Gray Fox – (North America) Skull Identification: Smaller Than Red Fox. Lack of Mandibular Angle
Kit Fox (Southwest USA to Mexico)
Red Fox (North America) (Proportionately larger than the Gray Fox)
Jackal (Africa)
Black‐Backed Jackal (Silver‐Backed) Jackel (Africa)
Side‐Striped Jackal (Africa)
Wolves. Gray Wolf (Timber Wolf, Western Wolf) (North America)
Maned Wolf (Brazil)
Reference
18 The Racoon Family
Coatimundi (Coati) (South America)
Raccoon (North America)
Giant Panda (Panda Bear) (China)
Red Panda (Nepal, Myanmar and Northern China)
Kinkajou (Central and South America)
References
19 The Weasel Family : Weasels and Polecats. Mustelidea
Black‐Footed Ferret (American Polecat) (North America)
Domestic Ferret (North America)
Martens. Pine Marten (Northern Europe)
Fisher (Pekan, Virginian Polecat) (North America)
Mink. American Mink (North America)
European Mink
Striped Skunk (Canada, United States and Northern Mexico)
Weasel (North America)
Wolverine (Northern Canada and Alaska): Largest of the Terrestrial Mustelids
Otters. American Badger (North America)
North American River Otter
Sea Otter (Aleutian Islands, California Coast)
Small‐Clawed Otter (Asia)
References
20 The Mongoose Family : Viverridae Civets and Genets Binturong. Binturong (Bear Cat) (South and Southeast Asia)
Civet (Asia and Africa)
Genet (Africa)
Meerkats (Botswana, Namibia, Angola, and South Africa)
African and Asian Mongoose (Subfamily) Herpestidae, Herpestinae, Herpestes ; 27 Species
Banded Mongoose (Central and East Africa)
Gray Meerkat (Suricate Mongoose)
Meerkat (Mongoose) (Malaysia)
References
21 The Hyena Family : Strictly Carnivores
Aardwolf (East and Southern Africa)
Brown Hyena (Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Southern Mozambique and South Africa): Least Common of the Hyenas; Smaller than the Spotted Hyena
Spotted Hyena (Laughing Hyena) (Sub‐Saharan Africa): Day Hunter
Striped Hyena (Middle East, North and East Africa): Night Hunter
References
22 Marsupials
American Opossum (North and South America)
Bandicoots and Bilbies (Australia, New Guinea)
Cuscuses and Brushtail Possums (Australian Possum)
Honey Possum (Australia)
Kangaroos, Wallabies, and Wombats (Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea) Grazers or Browsers
Kangaroo
Kangaroo, Tree
Wallaby
Koala (South Australia): Eucalyptus Forests
Marsupial Carnivores. Tasmanian Devil (Tasmania Only)
Tasmanian Devil
Ringtails, Pygmy Possums, Gliders (Mostly Australia, with One Species in Papua New Guinea)
Wombat (Australia) Common Coarse‐Haired Wombat
References
23 Large Herbivores : The Ungulates
23A. Primitive Ungulates. Aardvark (Ant Bear or Earth Pig) (Africa)
Elephants
African Elephant
Asian Elephant
Hyraxes (Dassies): The Maasai in East Africa Call Them “ Little Brother of the Elephant ” (Africa)
Rock Hyrax (Dassie)
References
23B The Hoofed Mammals. Odd‐Toed Ungulates Feeding Adaptations. Asses, Horses and Zebras
Somali Wild Ass (Somalia)
Burchell's Zebra (Plains Zebra) (Botswana)
Gréve's Zebra (Kenya)
Domestic Horse (Worldwide)
Mongolian Wild Horse (Przewalski's Horse)
Miniature Horse
Rhinoceroses
Black Rhinoceros (Hook‐Lipped Rhinoceros) (Africa) A browser
Greater One‐Horned Rhinoceros (Indian Rhinoceros) (India)
White Rhinoceros (Northern Africa [Rarest], and Southern Africa)
Sardinian Donkey (Sardinia Island, Italy)
Tapir (Central and South America, and Southeast Asia) Mountain Tapir (Wooly Tapir) (Second Smallest of the Five Species of Tapir and Only One to Live Outside Tropical Rainforests)
Malayan Tapir
Even‐Toed Ungulates. Non‐Ruminant Even‐toed Ungulates
Wild Pigs and Boars
Old World Pigs
Babirusa (Hairy or Golden Babirusa, Deer Pigs) (Buru and the Suru Islands)
Bush Pig (Red River Hog) (Africa, Madagascar)
Domestic Boar (Various Species Worldwide)
Vietnam Pot‐Bellied Pig (Lon I)
Peccary [Javelina, Skunk Pig] (Southwest United States, Central and South America)
Pygmy Hog (Himalaya)
Warthog (Sub‐Saharan Africa)
Hippopotamus (Sub‐Saharan Africa)
Camels, Llamas and Alpacas
Alpaca (South America, also United States and Canada )
Camel
Bactrian Camel (Steppes of Central Asia)
Dromedary Camel (Arabian Camel) (Arid and Semi‐Arid Regions of the Old World, Mainly Africa)
Guanaco (South America)
Llama (South America, also United States and Canada)
Vicuna (South America)
Ruminant Even‐Toed Ungulates. Wild Cattle
American Bison (North America)
Cape Buffalo (Africa)
Water Buffalo (Wild Water Buffalo) [20] (India, Nepal, Burma, Indochina, and Malaysia)
Yak (Asia)
Spiral‐Horned Antelopes
Bongo (Africa)
Bushbuck (Africa)
Common Eland (Africa)
Giant Eland (Lord Derby Eland) (Africa)
Greater Kudu (Africa)
Lesser Kudu (East Africa)
Mountain Nyala (Africa)
Browsing Antelopes. Giraffe (Africa)
Okapi (Africa)
Grazing Antelopes
Gnu (White‐Tailed Gnu, Black Wildebeest) (Africa)
Blue Wildebeest (Africa)
Hartebeest (Kongoni) (Africa)
Impala (Africa)
Lechwe (Africa)
Puku (Africa)
Reedbuck (Africa)
Rhebok (Africa)
Tessebe (Africa)
Waterbuck (Africa)
Horse‐like Antelopes
Gemsbok (Gemsbuck, Oryx, Beisa Oryx) (Africa)
Oryx, Arabian (White Oryx) (Africa)
Pronghorn Antelope (North America)
Roan Antelope (Africa)
Sable Antelope (Africa)
Scimitar Oryx (Africa)
Topi (Africa)
Gazelles and Dwarf Antelopes
Argale Goat (Argalis) (Himalayas)
Dikdik, Kirk's, (Damaraland Dikdik) (Africa)
Domestic and Wild Goats
Anglo‐Nubian Goat (British Domestic Goat)
Gerenuk (Africa)
Gazelle (Africa)
Goat Antelopes
Pygmy Goats (Europe and Africa)
Springbok (Africa)
Steenbuck (Africa)
Bighorn Sheep (North America)
Chevrotains (Mouse Deer) (South and Southeast Asia)
Domestic Sheep (Ubiquitous)
Musk Deer (Southern Asia)
Deer
Caribou (Reindeer) (Canada and Alaska)
Common Duiker (Africa)
Moose (North America)
Mule Deer (North America)
Muntjac (Southeast Asia, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Indonesia)
Red Deer (Europe)
Reedbuck (Africa)
Roe Deer (Slovenia)
Sambar (Southeast Asia)
Wapiti (Elk) (North America)
Whitetail Deer (North America)
References
24 Small Herbivores: Rodents
Feeding Adaptations
24A. Squirrel‐Like Rodents
Alpine Marmot (Europe and North America)
Beaver (North America)
Mountain Beaver (North America)
Pocket Gophers (Plains Pocket Gopher) (Great Plains of North America)
Prairie Dog (Grasslands of North America)
Scaly‐Tailed Squirrels (Anomaluridae) and Pocket Mice (Heteromyidae)
Giant Kangaroo Rat (Endemic to California, USA)
Springhare (Africa)
Squirrels
Tri‐Color Squirrel
Sugar Glider (Tasmania, Australia, New Guinea)
24B Mouse‐Like Rodents. Dormouse. Common Dormouse (Hazel Mouse) (Mostly Europe, But, Also Africa and Asia)
Gerbil (Africa, India, and Asia)
Hamsters (Syria, Israel, and USA)
Common Hamster
Pocket Mice (America)
New World Rats and Mice
Deer Mouse (White‐Footed Mouse) (North America)
Wood Rat (Pack Rat) (Western USA and Northern Mexico)
Old World Rats and Mice (89 Genera; 408 Species)
Common Rat (Norway Rat, Brown Rat) (All Continents Except Antarctica)
House Mouse (Ubiquitous in Households, as Pets and Laboratory Animals)
Jerboa (Hopping Desert Rodents) (Northern Africa, Asia, and Arabia)
Jumping Mice and Birch Mice (Europe and Asia)
Voles and Lemmings. Voles
Norwegian Lemming
Meadow Vole (Field Mouse, Meadow Mouse) (Canada, Alaska, and Northern USA)
Pine Voles (Woodland Voles) (Eastern North America)
Muskrat (North America)
24C Cavy‐Like Rodents
Histricomorph Rodents: Capybara, Porcupine, Nutria, Chinchilla Capybara (Central and South America)
Cavies
Guinea Pigs (Domestic, Cavy] (Andes of South America)
Guinea Pig (Patagonian) (South America)
Degu (South American Rat) eight Spp. in five Genera
Paca (South America)
New World Porcupines
African Porcupine (Crested Porcupine)
North American Porcupine
24D Other Cavy‐Like Rodents. Agouti (Central Mexico to South Brazil)
Chinchilla (Andes of South America)
24E Old World Porcupines. African Mole‐Rat (Common Mole Rat)
Gundi (Africa)
References
25 Lagomorphs
North American Pika
Rabbits and Hares. Antelope Jackrabbit (Southern Arizona and Northern Mexico)
Eastern Cottontail (Eastern USA)
Snowshoe Hare (Varying Hare) (North America)
References
26 Elephant‐Shrew
27 Insectivores. Insectivores (Shrews, Moles, and Hedgehogs)
Golden Mole (Endemic to Southern Africa)
Hedgehog (Eurasia, Africa)
Moles and Desmans
Western Mole (Eurasia, North America)
Family Soricidea: Shrews (Noreurasia, Africa, North and South America)
Common Shrew (Northern Europe)
Solenodon (Cuba, Hispaniola)
Tenrec (Madagascar, Africa)
References
28 Edentates. Anteater (Central and South America)
Armadillo‐Nine‐Banded (Southern North America, Central and South America) Nine‐Banded Armadillo (North, Central and South America)
Armadillos‐Giant [One of the Fairy Armadillos] (Southern North America, Central and South America) Giant Armadillo (South America)
Pangolin (Scaley Anteater) (Asia, Malaysia)
Sloths
Three‐Toed Sloth (Latin America)
Two‐Toed Sloth (Central and South America)
Two‐Toed Sloths (Central, South America)
References
29 Bats. Black Flying Fox Bat (Queensland, Australia)
Brown Bat (North America)
Old World Fruit Bat (Eurasia, Africa and Oceana)
Vespertilionid Bat (Temperate Regions of the World )
References
30 Monotremes
Duck‐Billed Platypus (Eastern Australia, including Tasmania)
Echidna (Australia and New Guinea)
Reference
31A. Whales, Porpoises, and Dolphins
Toothed Whales (Cetaceans) Beaked Whales
Dolphins. Bottlenose Dolphin (Temperate and Tropical Oceans Throughout the World)
Common Dolphin
False Killer Whale (Oceans Worldwide, but Mainly Tropical Regions)
Killer Whale: Largest Member of the Dolphin Family; An Apex Predator (Variety of Environments; Arctic and Antarctic to Tropical Seas, Absent only from Baltic and Black Seas)
Porpoises
River Dolphins (Amazon, South America)
Sperm Whale (Worldwide Range)
White Whale (Arctic and Sub‐Arctic Regions)
Beluga Whale
Baleen Whales
Gray Whale (North American Pacific Ocean)
Right Whale (Black Whale) (North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and Cool Waters of the Southern Hemisphere)
Rorqual (All Major Oceans Worldwide)
Humpback Whale (Oceans and Seas Around the World)
31B Seals and Sea Lions
Eared Seals
California Sea Lion (Western North America‐Southeast Alaska to Central Mexico)
Hooded Seals (One of the Northern Seals)
Stellar's Sea Lion (Northern Sea Lion) (North East Asia, West, North and South America, South Africa, South Australia, New Zealand and Southern Oceanic Islands)
Northern Fur Seal (North Pacific Ocean, Bering Sea, and Sea of Okhotsk)
True Seals (Hair Seals)
Crabeater Seal (Antarctic Ice Pack)
Elephant Seal (One of the Southern Seals) Northern Elephant Seal (Pacific Coast of United States, Canada, and Mexico) Southern Elephant Seal (Southern Hemisphere‐South Georgia and Macquarie Island, New Zealand, South Africa and Argentina)
Harbor Seal [Common Seal] (Temperate and Arctic Marine Coastlines of the Northern Hemisphere)
Walrus (Arctic Coasts‐Moving Pack Ice)
31C Sea Cows and Manatees. Manatees
Dugong (Indo‐West Pacific)
Manatee [Sea Cow] (Three Species: Amazonian, West India, and West Africa)
References
Notes
32 Amphibians
Leopard Tortoise (Savannahs of Eastern and Southern Africa and Sudan to the Sourthern Cape)
Galapagos Tortoise (Galapagos Islands of the South Pacific 400 Miles West of Ecuador and Aldabra in the Indian Ocean East of Tanzania)
Green Sea Turtle (Tropical and Subtropical Seas throughout the World)
33 Reptiles. Caiman (Central and South America)
Crocodile: Polyphydont homodonts (Tropics of Africa, Asia, The Americas and Australia)
Lizards. Chameleon (Rain Forests to Deserts of Africa [Madagascar], Southern Europe, Southern Asia as Far as Sri Lanka, and lately Hawaii, California and Florida)
Iguana: Pleurodont homodonts [1] (Mexico, Central America, South America and The Caribbean)
Komodo Dragon (Indonesian Islands of Komodo, Rinca, Flores and Gili Motang)
Monitor Lizards (Africa, Asia & Oceana, as well as the Americas as an Invasive Species)
Snakes
Anaconda [Water Boa] (Tropical South America)
Vine Boa (Brazil)
References
34 Avian
34A. Birds of Prey. Eagles. African Fish Eagle
American Bald Eagle
Batelleur Eagle (Africa)
Martial Eagle (Africa)
Tawny Eagle (Africa)
Owls. African‐Giant Eagle Owl
African Pels Fishing Owl
Spotted‐Eagle Owl (Africa)
White‐Faced Owl (Africa)
34B Scavangers. Long‐tailed Shrike (Botswana, Africa)
Magpie
Vultures. White‐Backed Vulture (Africa)
Cinereous Vulture (Black Vulture, Monk Vulture, Eurasian Black Vulture) Aegypius monachus (One of the Two Largest Old World Vultures)
Storks. Maribou Stork (the Undertaker Bird) (Africa)
Yellow‐Billed Stork (Africa)
Open‐Billed Stork (Africa)
Saddle‐Billed Stork (Africa)
34C Psittacine Birds. Hornbills. African Gray Hornbill
Red‐Billed Hornbill (Africa)
Southern Ground Hornbill (Africa)
Yellow‐Billed Hornbill (Africa)
Lovebird (Africa)
Macaw (Mexico, Central and South America)
Toucan (Southern Mexico, Central America and South America)
34D Ground‐nesting Birds and Shorebirds. Crowned Crane (Africa)
Saurus Crane (Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Australia)
Wattled Crane (Africa)
Egrets (Many Places throughout the World)
Emu (Endemic to Australia)
Flamingo (Throughout the Americas, Caribbean, Africa, Asia and Europe)
Hooded Guineafowl (Africa)
Hammerkop (Africa)
Herons (Many Places throughout the World) Squacco Heron
Ibis (Africa)
Kingfisher (Africa, Asia and Oceana)
Kookaburra (Australia and New Guinea)
Kori Bustard (National Bird of Botswana, [Africa])
Ostrich (Australia, Somalia Africa and Asia)
Secretary Bird (Africa)
34E Aquatic Birds. Black Cormorant (Africa)
Double‐Crested Cormorant (North America)
Ducks and Geese. Ducks. African Spoon‐Bill
Mallard Duck
Common Merganser
Northern Shoveler Duck (North America, Europe, and Asia)
Ring‐Necked Duck
Wood Duck
Geese. Canada Goose (Arctic and North America)
Egyptian Goose (Africa and The Nile Valley)
Spur‐Winged Goose (Africa)
Appendix I Taxonomy
Reference
Appendix II Types of Dentition* [1–3] Referring to General Dentition
Referring to Premolars and Molars
References
Appendix III Dental Formulas
References
Appendix IV. Feeding Adaptations
Glossary of Dental Terms
References
Further Reading
Index. a
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