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Группа авторов. Space Physics and Aeronomy, Ionosphere Dynamics and Applications
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Geophysical Monograph Series
Space Physics and Aeronomy Collection Volume 3. Geophysical Monograph 260. Ionosphere Dynamics and Applications
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
1 Magnetospheric Energy Input to the Ionosphere
ABSTRACT
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 ENERGY ENTERING THE IONOSPHERE‐THERMOSPHERE (IT) SYSTEM. 1.2.1 Electromagnetic and Particle Energies
1.2.2 The Weimer Model
1.2.3 The Cosgrove Model
1.2.4 Assimilative Modeling of Ionospheric Electrodynamics (AMIE)
1.3 GENERAL CIRCULATION MODELS (GCMS) OF MIT COUPLING
1.4 MODEL ASSESSMENT
1.5 JOULE HEATING
1.6 FUTURE DIRECTIONS. 1.6.1 New Data Analysis and Modeling Approaches
1.6.2 Wave Energy Input
1.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
2 High Latitude Ionospheric Convection
ABSTRACT
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 THE MAGNETOSPHERE‐IONOSPHERE SYSTEM
2.2.1 Morphology of the Magnetosphere‐Ionosphere System
2.2.2 Plasma Physics in the Magnetosphere‐Ionosphere System
2.3 STEADY‐STATE MAGNETOSPHERIC/IONOSPHERIC CONVECTION
2.3.1 Electrostatic Potential and Magnetic Flux Transport
2.3.2 Convection, Corotation, and Dawn‐Dusk Asymmetries
2.3.3 Magnetosphere/Ionosphere Current Systems
2.4 TIME‐DEPENDENT CONVECTION
2.4.1 The Expanding/Contracting Polar Cap Model
2.4.2 The Substorm Cycle and the ECPC
2.4.3 Lobe Reconnection
2.5 FURTHER READING
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
3 Multiscale Dynamics in the High‐Latitude Ionosphere
ABSTRACT
3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 CUSP
3.3 POLAR CAP
3.4 NIGHTSIDE AURORAL OVAL
3.5 CROSS‐REGIONAL AND GLOBAL INTERACTION PROCESSES
3.6 SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
4 Recent Advances in Polar Cap Density Structure Research
ABSTRACT
4.1 INTRODUCTION TO POLAR CAP DENSITY STRUCTURES
4.2 STATISTICAL OCCURRENCE RATE OF POLAR CAP PATCHES
4.3 PLASMA CHARACTERISTICS WITHIN THE POLAR CAP PATCHES
4.4 DYNAMIC EVOLUTION OF POLAR CAP PATCHES
4.5 ION UPFLOW ASSOCIATED WITH POLAR CAP HIGH‐DENSITY STRUCTURES
4.6 OPTICAL EMISSION MECHANISMS AND VARIABILITY OF POLAR CAP PATCHES
4.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
5 Polar Cap O+ Ion Outflow and Its Impact on Magnetospheric Dynamics
ABSTRACT
5.1 POLAR CAP ION OUTFLOW. 5.1.1 The Classic Polar Wind
5.1.2 The Nonclassic Polar Wind
5.1.3 Drivers of the Nonclassic O+ Outflow
5.2 IMPACTS OF ION OUTFLOW ON MAGNETOSPHERIC DYNAMICS
5.2.1 The Landing of O+ Outflow in the Magnetosphere
5.2.2 Modes of Magnetospheric Convection
5.2.3 Magnetopause Reconnection
5.2.4 Magnetotail Reconnection
5.3 OUTSTANDING QUESTIONS
5.3.1 Multiscale Acceleration Mechanisms
5.3.2 The Role of Upper Thermosphere
5.3.3 Space‐Weather Effects
REFERENCES
6 Ionospheric Storm‐Enhanced Density Plumes
ABSTRACT
6.1 REVIEW OF IONOSPHERIC OBSERVATIONS OF STORM‐ENHANCED DENSITY
6.2 SED CHARACTERISTICS
6.3 SED FORMATION PROCESSES
6.4 SED PLASMA IN THE CUSP AND MAGNETOSPHERE
6.5 SUMMARY AND CURRENT STATUS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
7 Ion Outflow and Lobe Density: Interhemispheric Asymmetries
ABSTRACT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 ESTIMATING PLASMA DENSITY FROM SPACECRAFT POTENTIAL
7.2.1 Defining the Lobe
7.2.2 Factors Influencing Lobe Density
7.3 OBSERVATIONS AND DATA SET CHARACTERISTICS
7.4 NORTH‐SOUTH ASYMMETRIES
7.5 SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
8 Mesoscale and Small‐Scale Structure of the Subauroral Geospace
ABSTRACT
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 TURBULENT PLASMASPHERE BOUNDARY LAYER
8.3 IONOSPHERIC STRUCTURES
8.4 DISCUSSION. 8.4.1 Subauroral Density Trough
8.4.2 SAPS Wave Structures
8.4.3 Decameter‐Scale Irregularities
8.5 CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
9 Equatorial Ionospheric Electrodynamics
ABSTRACT
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
9.3 QUIET‐TIME EQUATORIAL PLASMA DRIFTS
9.3.1 General Properties of Equatorial Plasma Drifts
9.3.2 Longitudinal Dependence
9.3.3 Altitudinal Variation
9.3.4 Quiet‐Time Variability
9.4 STORM‐TIME EQUATORIAL ELECTRIC FIELDS. 9.4.1 Introduction
9.4.2 Climatological Seasonal and Longitudinal Disturbance Effects
9.4.3 Model Studies of Equatorial‐Disturbance Drifts
9.5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
10 Theory and Modeling of Equatorial Spread F
ABSTRACT
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.2 THEORY
10.3 MODELING
10.3.1 3‐D Space / 2‐D Potential Modeling
10.3.2 3‐D Space / 3‐D Potential Modeling
10.3.3 Data‐Driven Modeling
10.3.4 Global Modeling
10.4 NEW FINDINGS
10.5 SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
11 Observations of Equatorial Spread F: A Working Hypothesis
ABSTRACT
11.1 INTRODUCTION
11.1.1 Background
Historical Perspective
Seeded Global System
Well‐Behaved Climatology
Broad Day‐to‐Day Variability
Working Hypothesis
Upwelling and EPBs
Source of D2D Variability?
Upwelling: A Large‐Scale Active Structure
Review Papers
11.1.2 Organization of Chapter
11.1.3 Interpretation of Plasma Structure
Ionogram Signatures
RSF
FSF
LT Dependence
Amplitude Scintillations
11.2 SOURCES, SEEDING, DRIVERS, AND LOADING. 11.2.1 Overview
11.2.2 Interchange Instability
11.2.3 Collisional‐Shear Instability
11.2.4 Seeding: AGWs and Neutral‐Ion (N‐I) Coupling. Overview
Basic N‐I Coupling
ITCZ and Dip Equator
Maps of Deep Convective Activity
Ocean Source for AGWs?
11.2.5 Electric Field. PRE
PSSR or Upwelling Growth?
11.2.6 Neutral Wind. Overview
Wind Sources
Retrograde Flow?
Suppression by Meridional U
Shorter‐Term Variations
11.2.7 Planetary‐Wave Effects
11.3 CLIMATOLOGY OF ESF. 11.3.1 Overview
PSSR Dependence
Declination Control
Topside ESF
11.3.2 DMSP
DMSP Climatology
Seasonal Dependence on Longitude
Persistence of Climatology
Asymmetry During Solstices
Asymmetries During Equinoxes
Displaced Islands
Low Solar Activity
11.3.3 AE‐E
Comparison with DMSP
11.3.4 ROCSAT‐1
11.3.5 C/NOFS
11.4 DAY‐TO‐DAY VARIABILITY OF ESF
11.4.1 Upwelling Paradigm. Working Hypotheses
Classic Paradigm
Radar Paradigm
Upwelling Paradigm
11.4.2 Stage 1: Seeding and N‐I Coupling
Electric‐Field Perturbations
Vertical Coupling and Preferred Scales
11.4.3 Stage 2: Upwelling Growth (SSE)
Upwelling and BT Echoes
Precursor of ESF Onset
11.4.4 Validation of Stage 2
11.4.5 Stage 3: EPB Development (SSF)
11.4.6 Stage 4: Evolution and Decay (F‐Layer Descent)
Drifting Upwellings, Patches, EPBs
OGC Paths
11.4.7 Another Seed Source?
11.4.8 EPBs Without Upwellings?
Westward‐Drifting BT Echoes
Rotational Transport
Interpretation
Heavy‐Ion Layer?
11.4.9 Highlights of Upwelling Paradigm
11.5 WHAT ABOUT LOW SOLAR ACTIVITY? 11.5.1 Overview. Discovery of Dawn EPBs
Polarization E in PMN EPBs
Pre‐Midnight Seeding?
11.5.2 Ionosonde Results. ESF Climatology
RSF Versus FSF
11.5.3 PMN Radar Echoes and Scintillations
Basic Appearance of PMN Echoes
Altitude‐Extended Exceptions
11.5.4 Seeding and Upwelling Growth
11.5.5 Summary and Interpretation
11.6 DISCUSSION. 11.6.1 Importance of Upwelling Description
11.6.2 What Is Source of Upwelling Growth?
Velocity Shear?
11.6.3 Seeding
11.6.4 EPB Development. High Solar Activity
Low Solar Activity
11.6.5 Day‐to‐Day Variability. Upwelling Effects
Tidal U Effects
Planetary Wave Effects
11.6.6 BT Echoes and Heavy‐Ion Layer
11.6.7 What Next?
PSSR and Upwelling Monitor
Meridional Wind
11.7 OUTSTANDING QUESTIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
12 The Equatorial Electrojet
ABSTRACT
12.1 HISTORICAL OBSERVATIONS
12.2 MAGNETIC SIGNATURES AND CURRENT DENSITY PROFILES
12.3 ELECTRODYNAMICS DESCRIPTION AND MODELING OF THE EEJ
12.3.1 Physics Based Modeling
12.3.2 Empirical Modeling
12.4 CLIMATOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE EEJ
12.5 TIDAL FEATURES OF THE EEJ
12.6 THE COUNTER‐ELECTROJET
12.7 SUMMARY AND OPEN ISSUES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
13 Equatorial Ionization Anomaly Variations During Geomagnetic Storms
ABSTRACT
13.1 INTRODUCTION
13.2 MAJOR MECHANISMS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE EQUATORIAL IONOSPHERIC RESPONSE TO THE MAGNETIC STORMS
13.2.1 Contribution of E×B Drifts
13.2.2 Roles of Neutral Winds and the Neutral Composition
13.3 VARIATIONS OF THE IONOSPHERIC STORM EFFECTS IN THE EQUATORIAL AND LOW LATITUDE REGIONS
13.3.1 Longitudinal/Local Time and Hemispheric Dependence of the Storm Effects
13.3.2 Ionospheric Response to Storms at Different Altitudes
13.3.3 Interaction Between the Ionospheric Storm Effects and Lower Atmospheric Activities
13.4 CHALLENGES AND UNSOLVED ISSUES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
14 Penetration of the Magnetospheric Electric Fields to the Low Latitude Ionosphere
ABSTRACT
14.1 TECHNIQUES TO OBSERVE THE PENETRATION ELECTRIC FIELD
14.2 CONVECTION AND SHIELDING ELECTRIC FIELDS
14.2.1 Region‐1 and ‐2 Field‐Aligned Current Dynamos
14.2.2 DP2 Ionospheric Currents
14.2.3 Shielding Electric Field
14.2.4 DP2 Currents by R1 and R2 FACs
14.2.5 Arguments over the DP2
14.2.6 Evening Anomaly of the Penetration Electric Field
14.3 PENETRATION OF ELECTRIC FIELDS DURING SUBSTORMS. 14.3.1 Overshielding During Expansion Phase
14.3.2 Arguments Over the Substorm Overshielding
14.4 PENETRATION OF ELECTRIC FIELDS DURING GEOMAGNETIC STORMS. 14.4.1 Main Phase Electric Field and Midlatitude DP2
14.4.2 Arguments Over the Stormtime Electric Field
14.4.3 Electric Field Effects on the Ionosphere
14.5 TRANSMISSION MECHANISM
14.5.1 Current Circuit in the Magnetosphere and Ionosphere
14.5.2 Horizontal Propagation in the E‐ and F‐Regions
14.5.3 Direct Propagation Through the Magnetosphere
14.5.4 TM0 Mode Wave in the Earth‐Ionosphere Waveguide
14.5.5 Attenuation due to Finite Conductivity
14.5.6 Geometrical Attenuation and Cowling Currents
14.5.7 Magnetosphere–Ionosphere–Ground Transmission Line
14.6 SUMMARY AND ISSUES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
15 Ionosphere and Thermosphere Coupling at Mid‐ and Subauroral Latitudes
ABSTRACT
15.1 INTRODUCTION
15.2 IONOSPHERIC RESPONSES TO THERMOSPHERIC NEUTRAL WINDS
15.2.1 Zonal Wind and Declination Effects on Ionospheric Longitudinal Variations
East–West Difference over the Continental US
Other Longitude Sectors
Stormtime Signatures
Global Patterns of Midlatitude Longitudinal Variations
15.2.2 The Midlatitude Summer Night Ionosphere
Neutral Wind and Magnetic Field Configuration Effect
Plasma Diffusion
Polarization Electric Field at Terminator
Longitudinal Variations in Neutral Winds and Composition
Other Processes
15.3 THERMOSPHERIC VARIATIONS DRIVEN BY IONOSPHERIC DYNAMICS
15.3.1 Main Stormtime I/T Coupling Phenomena
15.3.2 High Latitude Thermospheric Wind Circulation and Ionospheric Influences
15.3.3 Subauroral Neutral Wind Responses to Ionospheric Disturbances
15.4 INFLUENCES FROM BELOW
15.5 SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
16 Sudden Stratospheric Warming Impacts on the Ionosphere–Thermosphere System: A Review of Recent Progress
ABSTRACT
16.1 INTRODUCTION
16.2 SUDDEN STRATOSPHERIC WARMING EVENTS. 16.2.1 Phenomenology of SSW
16.2.2 SSW Definitions and Characteristics
16.2.3 Mechanisms Producing SSW
16.2.4 Coupling of SSW to Other Atmospheric Layers
16.3 SSW EFFECTS ON THE THERMOSPHERE
16.3.1 Local Time Dependencies
16.3.2 Zonal Mean Effects
Meridional Circulation
Thermal Structure
16.3.3 Global Cooling Effect
16.3.4 Relative Contributions of SSW and Geomagnetic Storms
16.4 IONOSPHERIC RESPONSE
16.4.1 Low‐Latitude Ionosphere
15.3.2 Variations of SSW Response with Solar Activity
15.3.3 Longitudinal Features in Ionospheric Response to SSW
15.4 Tidal Effects in Ionospheric Features
15.5 Other SSW‐Related Ionospheric Phenomena
16.4.2 Mid‐Latitude Ionosphere
16.4.3 High‐Latitude Ionosphere
16.5 NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
16.5.1 Progress in Numerical Simulations of SSW Effects in the Ionosphere and Thermosphere
16.5.2 Coupling Mechanisms
Mesosphere and Lower Thermosphere
Low‐Latitude Ionosphere
Mid‐Latitude Ionosphere
Thermosphere
16.6 OUTSTANDING ISSUES AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REFERENCES
17 Ionospheric Dynamics and Their Strong Longitudinal Dependences
ABSTRACT
17.1 INTRODUCTION
17.2 MID‐LATITUDE IONOSPHERE STRUCTURES
17.2.1 SED Plume and its Longitudinal Dependences
17.2.2 Mid‐Latitude Plasma Irregularities
17.3 GLOBAL EQUATORIAL IONOSPHERE DYNAMICS AND STRUCTURES
17.3.1 Low‐Latitude Plasma Irregularities
17.3.2 Low‐Latitude Irregularity Distributions and Their Longitudinal Dependences
17.4 LONGITUDINAL DEPENDENCE OF VERTICAL DRIFT
17.4.1 Forcing from below and its Longitudinal Variability
Gravity Waves (GWs)
LSWS and Irregularity
17.5 SUMMARY AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
18 Medium‐Scale Traveling Ionospheric Disturbances
ABSTRACT
18.1 INTRODUCTION
18.2 ELECTRIFIED MEDIUM‐SCALE TRAVELING IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES. 18.2.1 Two‐Dimensional Observations of EMSTID
18.2.2 Electric Fields Associated with EMSTIDs
18.2.3 Brief Explanation of the Perkins Instability
18.2.4 Vertical Structure of EMSTID
18.2.5 E‐ and F‐Region Coupling
18.2.6 Longitudinal Variation and Interhemispheric Coupling of EMSTIDs
18.3 MSTIDS INDUCED BY UPWARD‐PROPAGATING GRAVITY WAVES. 18.3.1 Daytime MSTIDs
18.3.2 Vertical Structure of Gravity Wave‐Induced TID
18.3.3 Gravity Waves Propagating into the Thermosphere
18.3.4 Seasonal Variations of the Daytime MSTIDs
18.4 DISCUSSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
19 Ionospheric Effects on HF Radio Wave Propagation
ABSTRACT
19.1 INTRODUCTION
19.2 HF PROPAGATION IN THE UNDISTURBED IONOSPHERE. 19.2.1 Introduction
19.2.2 Radar Equation
19.2.3 Propagation Modes
19.2.4 Focusing/Defocusing Effects
19.2.5 Absorption
19.2.6 Noise and Interference
19.2.7 Ray Tracing: Applications and Examples
19.3 EFFECTS OF IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES ON HF INSTRUMENTS
19.3.1 Reality and Median Models
19.3.2 Large‐Scale Spatial Variations in the Ionosphere. The Equatorial Anomaly
Solar Terminator Effects
Tidal Effects
Gradients and Off‐Great‐Circle Propagation
Large‐Scale Traveling Ionospheric Disturbances
19.3.3 Smaller Spatial‐ and Temporal‐Scale Disturbances
19.3.4 Spread F
19.3.5 Geomagnetic Stormtime Effects
19.4 SPORADIC‐E
19.5 SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
20 Ionospheric Scintillation Effects on Satellite Navigation
ABSTRACT
20.1 INTRODUCTION
20.2 NAVIGATION SYSTEM PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
20.3 STAND‐ALONE GNSS STANDARD POSITIONING SERVICE. 20.3.1 Traditional GNSS Receiver Processing
20.3.2 Effects of Scintillation on GNSS Receiver Processing
20.3.3 Fading across Frequency Bands and Constellations
20.4 SATELLITE‐BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS (SBAS) 20.4.1 SBAS Architecture
20.4.2 Scintillation Effects on SBAS Monitoring Network
20.4.3 Scintillation Effects on User Receivers
20.5 GROUND‐BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEMS (GBAS) 20.5.1 GBAS Architecture
20.5.2 Scintillation Effects on Reference Stations
20.5.3 Scintillation Effects on Airborne Receivers
20.6 FINAL COMMENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
21 Ionospheric Disturbances Related to Earthquakes
ABSTRACT
21.1 INTRODUCTION
21.2 GNSS‐TEC OBSERVATIONS. 21.2.1 Phase Difference and TEC
21.2.2 From STEC to VTEC
21.2.3 Isolation of Earthquake‐Origin Signals
21.3 COSEISMIC IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES. 21.3.1 General Description
21.3.2 Near‐Field Disturbance
21.3.3 Atmospheric Resonance
21.3.4 Directivity
21.3.5 Magnitude Dependence
21.3.6 Far Field Disturbance
21.4 PRESEISMIC IONOSPHERIC ANOMALIES. 21.4.1 Discovery and Brief History of Debate
21.4.2 3D Distribution of the Anomalies
21.4.3 Magnitude Dependence and Shapes of Preseismic Signatures
21.5 CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
22 Atmospheric and Ionospheric Disturbances Caused by Tsunamis
Abstract
22.1 INTRODUCTION
22.2 ACOUSTIC‐GRAVITY WAVE THEORY
22.3 ATMOSPHERIC WAVE GENERATION BY TSUNAMIS
22.4 TID AND AIRGLOW DISTURBANCE THEORY
22.5 TID AND AIRGLOW DISTURBANCE OBSERVATIONS
22.6 GRAVITY WAVE‐TID MODELING
22.7 OUTSTANDING ISSUES: CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
22.8 SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
INDEX
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