Оглавление
Группа авторов. Handbook of Clinical Gender Medicine
Handbook of. Clinical Gender. Medicine
Contents
Foreword
Preface
Gender Matters
Abstract
Biological Sex and the Genome: What Makes Us Ourselves?
Abstract
References
Social and Biological Determinants in Health and Disease
Gender Effects on Health and Healthcare
Abstract
Defining Terms and Measurement
The Research Void
Healthcare Utilization
The Morbidity and Mortality Paradox
Morbidity in Lesbian, Bisexual, Gay, Transgender, and Intersex Populations
Aging
Allocation of Resources, Empowerment, and Equity
The Final Word
References
A Global War against Baby Girls: Sex-Selective Abortion Becomes a Worldwide Practice
Abstract
Initial Signal in China
Parity-Specific Imbalance
Drivers of Imbalance
India’s Imbalance
Caucasus Region Imbalance
Other Countries and Subpopulations
The Demographic Effect
Social Implications
Considerations Moving Forward
Acknowledgement
Footnotes:
References
Fetal Programming
Abstract
What Is Fetal Programming?
Hormonal and Genetic Aspects of Fetal Sex Determination
Exogenous Effects on the Intrauterine Environment
Effects of Intrauterine Testosterone
The Sexual Dimorphous Brain – Organizational and Activational Effects of Sex Hormones
Intrauterine Exposure to Sex Steroids and Physical, Cognitive, and Behavioral Outcomes
Maternal and Fetal Nutrition and Programming of Adult Disease
The Impact of Maternal Prenatal Stress on the Developing Embryo and Fetus
The Pregnant Woman as an Information Source for the Growing Fetus
Intrauterine Environment and IQ
Intrauterine Environment and Its Influence on Subsequent Sexuality
Fetal Programming as a‘Species Survival’Strategy
The Fetus Affects Its Environment - Lessons Learned from Unlike Twin Pairs
Some Obstetrics Implications of Fetal Programming
References
Ambiguous Genitalia
Abstract
Sex Determination. Chromosomes, Embryology, Hormones, and Receptors
Reproductive Ducts. Mesonephric and Paramesonephric Ducts
Development of the External Genitalia
Molecular Biology
Classification of Ambiguous Genitalia. Chromosomal Disorders
Overvirilized Females. Fetal Sources and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Maternal or Exogenous Sources of Androgens
Undervirilized Males
Genetic Causes
Hormonal Failures
Placental Dysfunction
The Mother
The Environment
Anatomical Aspects of the Insufficiently Developed Genital Tubercle
Sexual Identities
Decision Tools
Hormonal Treatments
Masculinization Surgery
Feminization Surgery
The Gonads
Uterine Remnants
Results of Surgery
Outcome of Micropenis
Outcome of Phalloplasty
References
Central Nervous System and Clinical Applications
Chronic Stress and Allostatic Load
Abstract
The Measurement of Stress
Clinical Aspects. Neurological Regulation and Allostatic Load
Life Cycle Model of Stress
Pathogenesis Temporal Cascade of Allostatic Load Mediators
Allostatic Load Index
Clinical Allostatic Load Index Formula
Summary of Allostatic Load Research Findings
Epidemiology. Age and Sex Differences
Gender Differences
Evolution of Sex and Gender Differences in Stress
Treatment
Fostering Resilience
Pharmacotherapy
Future Directions
References
Autism
Abstract
Epidemiology
Prevalence
Pathogenesis. The Extreme Male Brain Theory of Autism Spectrum Conditions
Testosterone and Autism Spectrum Conditions
The X Chromosome and Autism Spectrum Conditions
The Y Chromosome and Autism Spectrum Conditions
Outstanding Issues: Alternative Biological Mechanisms Resulting in Biased Sex Ratios
Parental Manipulation of the Sex Ratio
The Immunoreactive Theory of Selective Male Affliction
Müllerian Inhibiting Substance
Outstanding Issues: Sex Differences in Symptomatology
References
Depression
Abstract
Epidemiology
Treatment
Pathogenesis. Physiological Dimorphisms
Psychosocial Factors
Genetics
Gonadal Steroids
Integrated Model of Depression
References
Violence: Adaptive Regulated Aggression Contrasted with Violence Against Women
Abstract
Neural and Hormonal Mechanisms for Regulated Aggression
Violence Committed by Men
What Constitutes ‘Violence against Women’?
Violence by an Intimate Partner
Sexual Violence
Violence and Girls
Female Genital Mutilation/Genital Cutting
Child Marriage
Violence and Armed Conflict
Critical Consequences and Costs of Violence
Poverty
Health
What Are the Root Causes of Violence against Women?
Discrimination against Women and Cultural Norms
Laws and Legal Systems
Armed Conflict and War
Perspective from the East Africa Region
Nature and Forms of Violence against Women in East Africa
The Causes of Violence against Women in East Africa
Violence against Women: Victims’ Rights
Access to Services for Female Victims of Violence in East African States
Strategies to Reduce Violence against Women
Act Locally and Nationally
Empower Women: Increase Economic Opportunity and Education
Change Culture and Social Norms
Change Laws, Policies, and Budgets
Enlist Unconventional Allies
Create Multispectral Partnerships
The Way Forward in Mitigating Violence against Women in East African States
Promising Initiatives and Programs. The United Nations Trust Fund to End Violence against Women
V-Day: A Global Movement to End Violence against Women and Girls Worldwide
City of Joy, Democratic Republic of Congo
Breakthrough: Bell Bajao/Ring the Bell
International Rescue Committee Programs in Sierra Leone
One-Stop Shops, South Africa
United Nations Secretary-General’s Campaign to End Violence Against Women
Women’s Health and Action Research Center: Interventions for Violence Prevention among Young Female Hawkers in Motor Parks in South-Western Nigeria
Towards a Culture That Is Safe for All Women and Girls
Acknowledgments
References
Neurology
Parkinson’s Disease
Abstract
Epidemiology, Prevalence, Incidence, and Onset
Clinical Considerations. Symptoms
Nonmotor Symptoms
Etiology
Impact of Estrogens
Menstruation
Sexual Life and Pregnancy
Pharmacological Treatment Outcome
Outcome of Surgical Intervention
Conclusion
Key Issues
References
Stroke
Abstract
Definition and Epidemiology of Stroke
Clinical Considerations. Blood Pressure
Atrial Fibrillation
Carotid Stenosis
Smoking
Alcohol Consumption
Lack of Physical Exercise
Obesity
Diabetes Mellitus
Carotid and Vertebral Dissection
Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome
Migraine
Hormonal Therapy and Pregnancy. Oral Contraceptives
Hormonal Replacement Therapy
Pregnancy and Puerperium
Sinus Thrombosis
Clinical Presentation and Diagnosis. Subarachnoid Hemorrhage
Presentation of Stroke
Diagnosis of Stroke
Clinical Work-Up
Treatment Options. Acute treatment, thrombolysis
Preventive Treatment
References
Multiple Sclerosis
Abstract
Epidemiology
Pathogenesis
Clinical Considerations
Etiology: Genes and Lifestyle/Environment. Genes
Lifestyle/Environmental Factors
Gene-Environment Interactions
Gender as a Risk Factor
Pregnancy and Estrogens
Fertility
Therapy
References
Epilepsy
Abstract
Clinical Considerations. Sex Hormones, Epilepsy, and Catamenial Epilepsy
Gender Aspects on Adverse Effects of Antiepileptic Drugs
Gender Aspects on Pharmacokinetics of Antiepileptic Drugs
Menopause
Bone Health
References
Migraine and Other Headaches
Abstract
Overview of Headache
Primary Headaches. Migraine. Epidemiology of Migraine
Clinical Considerations of Migraine
Treatment Considerations for Women with Migraine
Comorbidity of Migraine
Tension-Type Headache
Cluster Headache
Epidemiology and Gender Effects – Cluster Headache
Pathogenesis of Cluster Headache
Other Primary Headaches
Secondary Headache
References
Pain
Fibromyalgia
Abstract
References
Temporomandibular Joint Disorders
Abstract
Gender Differences in Temporomandibular Joint Disorder
Implications for the Clinical Presentation of Temporomandibular Joint Disorder
Implications for Diagnostic and Treatment Considerations of Temporomandibular Joint Disorder
Implications for Future Research
References
Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Abstract
Clinical Features of Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Menstrual Cycle and Hormonal Effects on Irritable Bowel Syndrome Symptoms
Postinfectious Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Sex-Based Considerations in the Differential Diagnosis of Irritable Bowel Syndrome
Comorbidity
Treatment Options and Considerations
Lifestyle and Dietary Changes
Pharmacological Treatments
Treatments for Irritable Bowel Syndrome with Constipation
Lubiprostone
Tegaserod
Treatments for Irritable Bowel Syndrome with Diarrhea. Loperamide
Alosetron
Treatments Targeting Pain or Discomfort. Antispasmodics
Antidepressants
Modulation of the Gastrointestinal Flora. Rifaximin
Probiotics
Nonpharmacological and Other Treatments. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy
Hypnotherapy
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction
Patient-Physician Relationship
Future Research
References
Pain and Analgesia
Abstract
The Descending Pain Modulatory Pathway
A Neural Substrate for Sex Differences in Pain and Morphine Analgesia
Role of Gonadal Hormones in Sex Differences in Pain and Analgesia
Implications for Future Research and Pain Therapy
References
Circulation
Coronary Heart Disease
Abstract
Epidemiology
Clinical Considerations. Risk Factors
Symptoms. Myocardial Infarction and Acute Coronary Syndrome
Angina Pectoris
Delays
Differential Diagnoses
Diagnostic Considerations. Risk Factor Assessment Models
Exercise Stress Testing
Nuclear Stress Testing
Coronary Angiography
Treatment Options. Guidelines
Rehabilitation
Future Options and Research
References
Coronary Heart Disease and Female Sex Hormones
Abstract
Hormone Therapy
Primary Prevention
Secondary Prevention
Recommendations
References
Heart Failure
Abstract
Background
Definition
Epidemiology
Etiology
Prognosis
Pathogenesis
Diagnosis
Treatment
Medical Treatment
Diuretics
ACE Inhibitors
Angiotensin II Receptor Antagonists
β-Blockers
Aldosterone Antagonists, Spironolactone, and Eplerenone
Digoxin
Treatment with ‘Cardiac Devices’
Physical Training
References
Arrhythmias
Abstract
Electrocardiographic and Cardiac Electrophysiologic Differences
Sex Hormones and Arrhythmias
Stress-Mediated Effects
Bradyarrhythmias
Supraventricular Tachyarrhythmias
Atrial Fibrillation
Ventricular Arrhythmias and Sudden Cardiac Death
Gender Differences in Treatment Effects. Antiarrhythmic Drug Therapy
Catheter Ablation
The Result of Primary Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death with Ischemic Cardiac Death
Limitations in Our Present Knowledge
Conclusion
References
Cancer
Cancer
Abstract
Major Gender Differences in Cancer Incidence
Mortality and Prognosis
Cancers Specific for Women and Men
Cancers that Are More Common in Women
Cancers that Are More Common in Men
Cancers Showing Little or No Difference among Males and Females
The ‘Vogelstein-Hanahan-Weingerg’ Paradigm of Modern Cancer Biology
Recent Findings in Tumor Biology Adding to the Complexity
The Number of Mutated Genes
Epigenetic Programming
MicroRNAs
Tumor Cell Heterogeneity and Cancer ‘Stem Cells’
‘Infiltrating’ Normal Cells and Chronic Inflammation
Impact of the Tissue Environment
Cancer Cell Metabolism and the Warburg Effect – The Distinct Features of Tumor Cell Metabolism
Impact of Basic Tumor Biology on Our Understanding of Gender-Related Cancer Issues
The Y Chromosome
Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgement
References
Three Nuclear Receptors Involved in Gender-Related Proliferative Diseases (ER-β LXR-α, and LXR-β)
Abstract
The Signaling Pathways of Estrogen Receptor, Liver X Receptor, and Transforming Growth Factor-β. Estrogen Receptor-β Signaling
How Do Gonadal Hormones Regulate Stromal-Epithelial Growth?
Transforming Growth Factor-β Signaling
Liver X Receptor Signaling
Crosstalk between Estrogen Receptor, Liver X Receptor, and SMAD3
Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy, Lymphangioleiomyomatosis, and Dense Breasts. Benign Prostatic Hypertrophy
Liver X Receptor-α -/- Mice: A Possible Animal Model of BPH
Lymphangioleiomyomatosis
Dense Breast
What Are the Common Abnormalities in Signaling Pathways in Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, Lymphangioleiomyomatosis, and Dense Breasts?
Estrogen Receptors in Diseases of the Immune System
What Is the Role of Estrogen Receptor-β in the Immune System?
Gall Bladder Cancer: A Predominantly Female Disease
Acknowledgements
References
Metabolic Disease
Type 1 Diabetes
Abstract
Epidemiology
Pathophysiology
Clinical Features and Diagnosis
Complications
Gender Issues in the Management of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus
Pregnancy and Type 1 Diabetes
Specific Issues Relating to Sex Hormones
References
Type 2 Diabetes
Abstract
Risk Factors for Diabetes in Relation to Gender
Differential Effect of Diabetes on Macrovascular Complications According to Gender
Explanations for the Gender Disparity for Cardiovascular Risk
Implications for Prevention and Future Research
Microvascular Complications
Sex Disparities in Treatment and Prognosis
Other Related Conditions in Patients with Diabetes
Diabetes and Reproduction
Gestational Diabetes
References
Obesity
Abstract
Body Composition
Regional Differences in the Prevalence of Overweight and Obesity (BMI >25)
Secular Trends for Body Weight
Gender Differences in Primary Care
Data Interpretation
Comorbidities during Obesity in Females
Gender Differences in Obesity Treatment
References
Pituitary and Thyroid Diseases
Abstract
Hyperprolactinemia
Growth Hormone. Physiology
Growth Hormone Hypersecretion
Nonfunctioning Pituitary Adenoma
Adrenocorticotropic Hormone-Producing Pituitary Adenoma – Cushing’s Disease
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 1
Thyroid Diseases. Thyrotoxicosis Hyperthyroidism
Subclinical Hyperthyroidism
Hypothyroidism
Thyroid Cancer
References
Diseases of Calcium Metabolism and Bone Metabolic Disorders
Abstract
The Calcium-Parathyroid Hormone Relationship
Primary Hyperparathyroidism
Lithium-Induced Hypercalcemia
Osteomalacia
Bone Mass throughout Life
Sexual Hormones and Bone Interrelationships
Pathology, Clinical Presentation, and Diagnosis of Osteoporosis
Treatment of Osteoporosis
Paget’s Disease of Bone
References
Adrenal Disorders, Female Androgen Deficiency, Hirsutism, and Endocrine Hypertension
Abstract
Adrenal Hormones
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
Primary Adrenocortical Insufficiency (Addison’s Disease)
Androgen Deficiency and Therapy in Women
Hirsutism
Adrenal Tumors
Endocrine Hypertension
References
Transsexualism
Abstract
Clinical Features
Epidemiology
Etiology
Evaluation and Treatment
Female-to-Male Transsexualism
Male-to-Female Transsexualism
Sex Reassignment Surgery
Outcome of Treatment
References
Autoimmune, Inflammatory, and Musculoskeletal Disease
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Abstract
Epidemiology
Pathogenesis
Clinical Features
Diagnosis
Treatment
Contraception
Fertility
Pregnancy
Antiphospholipid Syndrome
Neonatal Lupus
References
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Abstract
Epidemiology
Clinical Considerations. Measurements of Disease Activity
Disease Course and Prognosis
Diagnostic Considerations. Classification Criteria
Autoantibodies and Acute-Phase Reactants
Treatment Options. Use of Nonbiological and Biological Medication
Treatment Response
Hormone Replacement Therapy
Future Options and Research
References
Osteoarthritis
Abstract
Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Clinical Features. Sexual Dimorphism in Osteoarthritis Prevalence Estimates Based on Joint Imaging
Sexual Dimorphism in Joint Conformation
Sex Dimorphism and Osteoarthritis Biomarkers of Connective Tissue Activity
Sexual Dimorphism and Musculoskeletal Pain, Functioning, and Injury
Pathogenesis. Sexual Dimorphism and Risk Factors for Osteoarthritis: Obesity
Sexual Dimorphism, Obesity, and Metabolic Components
Sex Hormones and Osteoarthritis
Treatment. Implications for the Role of Sexual Dimorphism in Arthroplasty and Joint Replacement
References
Spondyloarthritis
Abstract
Ankylosing Spondylitis
Psoriatic Arthritis
Reactive Arthritis
Inflammatory Bowel Disease Arthritis
Sex Ratio
Genetic Consideration
Clinical Expression
Radiographic Changes
Osteoporosis in Seronegative Spondyloarthritis
Functional Outcome
Mortality
Response to Treatment
Gonadal Hormone Levels
The Effect of Exogenous Hormones in Seronegative Spondyloarthritis
Pregnancy
Pregnancy Outcome
Conclusion
References
Gout
Abstract
Epidemiology
Pathogenesis. Proinflammatory Effects of MSU Crystals
Uric Acid Homeostasis
Hormonal Influence on Serum Urate Concentration
Clinical Features
Diagnosis
Treatment
Conclusion
References
Infectious Diseases
HIV Infection
Abstract
Epidemiology. Prevalence and Incidence
Vulnerability to HIV Transmission and Risk of HIV Infection per Sexual Act
Sexual Minorities and Marginalized Groups
Clinical Considerations. HIV Disease in Untreated Patients
HIV-Associated Morbidity
Gender Considerations in Antiretroviral Treatment. Access to Care in High-Income Countries and in Free-Access Health Care Settings
Treatment Initiation
Pharmacokinetics
Adverse Effects and Treatment Responses
Drug Interactions
Women with Childbearing Potential
Research
Prevention and Health Policy
Conclusions
References
Malaria
Abstract
Infection and Epidemiology
Clinical Considerations. Symptoms and Pathogenesis
Diagnostic Considerations
Treatment
Risk Factors
Health-Seeking Behavior, Access to Care, and Compliance to Malaria Treatment
Prevention
Global Malaria Control Strategies
Gendering Malaria Research
References
Measles Infection
Abstract
Epidemiology
Elimination and Eradication
Severe Measles: A Model of Disease Transmission
Measles Vaccination: Sex-Differential Effects
The Elimination/Eradication Scenario: A Challenge for Future Research
References
Tuberculosis
Abstract
Sex and Gender in Tuberculosis: Why Do They Matter?
Sex-Associated Patterns in Tuberculosis Epidemiology
Gender Disparities, HIV Infection, and Regional Variations
Active versus Passive Case Detection and Gender
Tuberculosis Infection, Disease, and Gender
Diagnostic Methods and Gender
Tuberculosis Symptoms and Gender
Health-Seeking Behavior and Gender
Treatment Adherence and Social Consequences of Tuberculosis
References
Urology, Sexual Dysfunction, and Nephrology
Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms, Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia, and Overactive Bladder
Abstract
Terminology
Prevalence of Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms
Etiology and Pathogenesis behind Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
Parameters of Progression
Diagnostics of Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms and Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
Treatment of Benign Prostatic Enlargement
Minimally Invasive Treatment of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
Surgical Treatment of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia
Are All Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms Induced by Prostate Enlargement?
Overactive Bladder
Treatment of Overactive Bladder
References
Sexual Dysfunction in Women
Abstract
Sexual Dysfunctions
Sexual Interest and Desire
Sexual Arousal Dysfunction
Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder
Dyspareunia and Vaginismus
Prevalence of Sexual Dysfunctions
Concurrences in Sexual Dysfunctions
Risk factors
References
Sexual Dysfunction in Men
Abstract
Erectile Dysfunction
Epidemiology
Pathophysiology
Vascular Factors
Hormonal Factors
Neurological Factors
Psychological and Interpersonal Factors
Treatment
Hypoactive Sexual Desire. Definition and Epidemiology
Pathophysiology
Treatment
Premature Ejaculation. Definition and Epidemiology
Pathophysiology
Treatment
Delayed Ejaculation and Other Orgasmic Dysfunctions. Definition and Epidemiology
Pathophysiology and Treatment
Dyspareunia or Sexual Pain Disorder
References
Chronic Kidney Disease
Abstract
Progression to End-Stage Renal Disease
Dialysis Therapies
Disturbances in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Gonadal Axis
Dialysis Therapy, Dialysis Adequacy, and the Patient’s Attitude towards the Disease
Conclusions
References
Pharmaceutical Drugs
Women in Clinical Drug Trials: United States Food and Drug Administration Update on Policies and Practices
Abstract
History: Women in Clinical Trials
Rethinking the Exclusion Policy
Where’s the Evidence?
United States FDA Policies and Practices
Perspectives: Are We There Yet?
References
Drug Disposition and Effect
Abstract
Sex Differences in Clinical Pharmacology
Absorption
Distribution
Metabolism
Elimination
Pharmacodynamics
Sex Differences in Adverse Drug Reactions
Conclusion
References
Geriatrics
Aging in a Gendered Society: Social and Biological Determinants of Health in the Elderly Population
Abstract
Women’s Mortality Advantage
Women’s Morbidity Disadvantage
Gender Differences in Care Utilization
Shooting a Moving Target
References
Multimorbidity
Abstract
Incidence and Prevalence
Consequences
Gender Differences
Conclusion
References
Dementia
Abstract
Epidemiology
Gender Differences in the Occurrence of Dementia. Prevalence
Incidence
Role of Hormones
Gender Difference in Brain Reserve
Gender Difference in Risk Factors
Age
Familial Aggregation
Apolipoprotein E ε4 Genotype
Vascular Disease
Blood Pressure
Diabetes
Smoking
Alcohol Consumption
Leisure Activities
Diet
Depression and Stress
Gender Difference on the Outcome
Conclusion
References
Cognition
Abstract
Visuospatial Ability
Verbal Ability
Quantitative Ability
Episodic Memory
Explanations: Social or Cultural Factors
Explanations: Brain Organization
Footnote:
References
Author Index
Subject Index
