Оглавление
Группа авторов. Liquid Biofuels
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Tables
Guide
Pages
Liquid Biofuels. Fundamentals, Characterization, and Applications
Preface
1. Introduction to Biomass to Biofuels Technologies
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass and Its Composition
1.2.1 Cellulose
1.2.2 Hemicellulose
1.2.3 Lignin
1.3 Types and Category of the Biomass
1.3.1 Marine Biomass
1.3.2 Forestry Residue and Crops
1.3.3 Animal Manure
1.3.4 Industrial Waste
1.4 Methods of Conversion of Biomass to Liquid Biofuels
1.4.1 Pyrolysis and Types of the Pyrolysis Processes
1.4.2 Types of Reactors Used in Pyrolysis
1.4.2.1 Bubble Fluidized Bed Reactor
1.4.2.2 Circulating Fluidized Bed and Transport Bed Reactor
1.4.2.3 Ablative Pyrolysis Reactor
1.4.2.4 Rotary Cone Reactor
1.4.3 Chemical Conversion
1.4.4 Electrochemical Conversion
1.4.5 Biochemical Methods
1.4.6 Co-Conversion Methods of Pyrolysis (Copyrolysis)
1.5 Bioethanol and Biobutanol Conversion Techniques
1.6 Biogas and Syngas Conversion Techniques
1.7 Advantages and Drawbacks of Biofuels
1.8 Applications of Biofuels
1.9 Future Prospects
1.10 Conclusion
References
2. Advancements of Cavitation Technology in Biodiesel Production – from Fundamental Concept to Commercial Scale-Up
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Principles of Ultrasound and Cavitation
2.3 Intensification of Biodiesel Production Processes Through Cavitational Reactors
2.3.1 Acoustic Cavitation (or Ultrasound Irradiation) Assisted Processes
2.3.2 Acoustic or Ultrasonic Cavitation Assisted Processes
2.4 Designing the Cavitation Reactors
2.5 Scale-Up of Cavitational Reactors
2.6 Application of Cavitational Reactors for Large-Scale Biodiesel Production
2.7 Future Prospects and Challenges
References
3. Heterogeneous Catalyst for Pyrolysis and Biodiesel Production
3.1 Biodiesel Production
3.1.1 Homogeneous Catalyst
3.1.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst
3.1.3 Natural Catalyst
3.1.4 Catalyst Characterization. 3.1.4.1 Morphology and Surface Property
3.1.4.2 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)
3.1.4.3 Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy
3.1.4.4 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
3.1.4.5 Temperature Programmed Desorption (TPD)
3.1.4.6 X-Ray Photoemission Spectroscopy (XPS)
3.1.5 Kinetics of Biodiesel
3.2 Plastic Pyrolysis
3.2.1 Zeolite
3.2.2 Activated Carbon (AC)
3.2.3 Natural Catalyst
3.2.4 Characterization of Catalyst. 3.2.4.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
3.2.4.2 Surface Characteristics
3.2.4.3 NH3-Temperature Programmed Desorption (NH3-TPD)
3.2.5 Pyrolysis Kinetics
3.3 Conclusion
References
4. Algal Biofuel: Emergent Applications in Next-Generation Biofuel Technology
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Burgeoning of Biofuel Resources
4.2.1 Potential Role of Microalgae Towards Biofuel Production
4.3 Common Steps Adopted for Microalgal Biofuel Production
4.3.1 Screening and Development of Robust Microalgal Strain
4.3.2 Cultivation for Algal Biomass Production
4.3.3 Harvesting of Microalgae Biomass
4.3.4 Dewatering and Drying Process
4.3.5 Extraction and Purification of Lipids from Microalgal Biomass for Biodiesel Production
4.3.6 Microalgal Biomass Conversion Technology Towards Different Types of Biofuel Production
4.3.6.1 Chemical Conversion
4.3.6.2 Biochemical Conversion
4.3.6.3 Thermochemical Conversion
4.3.6.4 Direct Conversion
4.4 Types of Microalgal Biofuels and their Emerging Applications
4.4.1 Biodiesel
4.4.2 Bioethanol
4.4.3 Biogas
4.4.4 Bio-Oil
4.5 Conclusion
References
5. Co-Liquefaction of Biomass to Biofuels
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction (HTL) 5.2.1 Background
5.2.2 Operating Parameters Affecting HTL Process
5.3 Co-Liquefaction of Biomass
5.3.1 Food Waste with Others
5.3.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass with Others
5.3.3 Biomass with Crude Glycerol
5.3.4 Algal Biomass with Others
5.3.5 Sludge with Others
5.3.6 Biomass with Plastic Waste
5.4 Current Development, Challenges and Future Perspectives
5.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
6. Biomass to Bio Jet Fuels: A Take Off to the Aviation Industry
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Transition of Biomass to Biofuels
6.3 Properties of Aviation Jet Fuel (Bio-Jet Fuel)
6.4 Fuel Specification for Civil Aviation
6.5 Choice of Feedstock (Renewable Sources)
6.5.1 Camelina
6.5.2 Jatropha
6.5.3 Wastes
6.5.4 Algae
6.5.5 Halophytes
6.5.6 Fiber Feedstock
6.6 Pathways of Biomass to Bio-Jet Fuels. 6.6.1 Hydrogenated Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA)
6.6.2 Catalytic Hydrothermolysis (CH)
6.6.3 Hydro Processed Depolymerized Cellulosic Jet (HDCJ)
6.6.4 Fischer-Tropsch Process (FT)
6.6.5 Lignin to Jet
6.6.6 Direct Sugars to Hydrocarbons (DSHC)
6.6.7 Aqueous Phase Reforming (APR)
6.6.8 Alcohol to Bio-Jet
6.7 Challenges Associates with the Future of Bio-Jet Fuel Development
6.7.1 Ecological Challenges
6.7.2 Feedstock Availability and Sustainability
6.7.3 Production Challenge
6.7.4 Distribution Challenge
6.7.5 Compatibility Issues
6.8 Future Perspective
6.9 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
7. Advances in Bioethanol Technology: Production and Characterization
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Production Technology of Ethanol and Global Players
7.3 Microbiology of Bioethanol Production
7.4 Fermentation Technology
7.5 Downstream Process
7.5.1 Distillation
7.5.2 Molecular Sieves
7.6 Ethanol Analysis
7.6.1 Gas Chromatography
7.6.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
7.6.3 Infrared Spectroscopy
7.6.4 Olfactometry
7.7 Conclusion
References
8. Effect of Process Parameters on the Production of Pyrolytic Products from Biomass Through Pyrolysis
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Biomass to Energy Conversion Technologies
8.2.1 Biochemical Conversion of Biomass
8.2.2 Thermochemical Conversion (TCC) of Biomass
8.2.2.1 Combustion
8.2.2.2 Gasification
8.2.2.3 Pyrolysis
8.2.2.4 Liquefaction
8.2.2.5 Carbonization and Co-Firing
8.2.3 Comparison of Thermochemical Conversion Techniques
8.3 Advantages of Pyrolysis
8.4 Effect of Processing Parameters on Liquid Oil Yield
8.4.1 Temperature
8.4.2 Effect of Catalysts on Pyrolytic End Products
8.4.3 Vapour Residence Times
8.4.4 Size of Feed Particles
8.4.5 Effect of Heating Rates
8.4.6 Effect of Atmospheric Gas
8.4.7 Effect of Biomass Type
8.4.8 Effect of Mineral
8.4.9 Effect of Moisture Contents
8.4.10 Effect of Bed Height and Bed Thickness
8.5 Types of Reactors
8.5.1 Fixed Bed Reactor
8.5.2 Fluidized Bed Reactor
8.5.3 Bubbling Fluidized Bed (BFB) Reactor
8.5.4 Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) Reactors
8.5.5 Ablative Reactor
8.5.6 Vacuum Pyrolysis Reactor
8.5.7 Rotating Cone Reactor
8.5.8 PyRos Reactor
8.5.9 Auger Reactor
8.5.10 Plasma Reactor
8.5.11 Microwave Reactor
8.5.12 Solar Reactor
8.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Types of Reactors
8.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
9. Thermo-Catalytic Conversion of Non-Edible Seeds (Extractive-Rich Biomass) to Fuel Oil
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Thermochemical Technologies for Liquid Biofuel Production. 9.2.1 Hydrothermal Liquefaction
9.2.2 Pyrolysis and Its Classification
9.3 Feedstock Classification for Biofuel Production
9.3.1 Agricultural Crops and Residues
9.3.2 Municipal and Industrial Wastes
9.3.3 Animal Wastes
9.3.4 Undesirable Plants or Weeds
9.3.5 Forest Wood and Residues
9.3.5.1 Non-Edible Oil Seeds: A Potential Feedstock for Liquid Fuel Production
9.3.5.2 Non-Edible Oil Seeds and Worldwide Availability
9.4 Characterization of Non-Edible Oil Seeds
9.5 Thermal Degradation Profile of Different Non-Edible Seeds
9.6 Preparation of Raw Materials for Pyrolysis
9.7 Catalytic and Non-Catalytic Thermal Conversion for Liquid Fuel Production. 9.7.1 Non-Catalytic Pyrolysis
9.7.1.1 CHNSO Analysis of Seed Pyrolytic Oil
9.7.1.2 FTIR Analysis of Seed Pyrolytic Oil
9.8 Need for Up-Gradation of Pyrolytic Oil
9.8.1 Catalytic Pyrolysis
9.9 Application of Catalyst in Pyrolysis of Non-Edible Biomass
9.10 Effect of Parameters on Liquid Fuel Production. 9.10.1 Effect of Operating Parameters on Yield
9.10.2 Effect of Temperature
9.10.3 Heating Rates
9.10.4 Effect of Flow of Sweeping Gas
9.10.5 Effect of Particle Size
9.10.6 Effect of Catalyst on Yield
9.10.7 Influence of Catalysts on Oil Composition
9.10.8 Effect of Catalyst Bed on Yield
9.10.9 Effect of Catalyst on Fuel Properties of Pyrolytic Oil
9.11 Fuel Properties of Thermal and Catalytic Pyrolytic Oil
9.12 Challenges in Utilization of Nonedible Oil Seed in Themocatalytic Conversion Process
9.13 Advantages and Drawbacks of Seed Pyrolytic Oils
9.14 Precautions Associated with the Application of Biofuel
9.15 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
10. Suitability of Oil Seed Residues as a Potential Source of Bio-Fuels and Bioenergy
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Biomass Conversion Processes
10.3 Biomass to Bioenergy via Thermal Pyrolysis. 10.3.1 Thermogravimetric Analysis
10.3.2 Thermal Pyrolysis
10.4 Physicochemical Characterization of Bio-Oil. 10.4.1 Physical Properties
10.4.2 FTIR Analysis
10.4.3 GC-MS Analysis
10.5 Engine Performance Analysis
10.5.1 Break Thermal Efficiency (BTE)
10.5.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)
10.5.3 Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
10.6 Future Prospects and Recommendations
10.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
11. Co-Conversion of Algal Biomass to Biofuel
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Mechanism of Co-Pyrolysis Process
11.2.1 Major Types of Pyrolysis and Co-Pyrolysis
11.3 Factors Impacting Co-Pyrolysis
11.3.1 Composition of Co-Pyrolysis Substrates and the Products Obtained in Co-Pyrolysis
11.3.2 Main Reactor Types Used During Biomass Co-Pyrolysis and the Process Conditions/Parameters
11.3.2.1 Classification of Biomass (Co) Pyrolysis Bioreactors
11.3.3 The Role of Catalysts in Biomass Co-Pyrolysis
11.3.3.1 Catalytic Hydrotreating
11.3.3.2 Types of Catalysts Available [107–111]
11.3.3.3 Factors Affecting the Performance of Catalysts [111]
11.3.3.4 Mechanisms of Deactivation of Catalysts [111]
11.3.3.5 Catalytic Upgradation of Bio-Oil with Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO)
11.4 Recent Advances and Studies on Co-Pyrolysis of Biomass and Different Substrates
11.5 Effect between Biomass and Different Substrates in Co-Pyrolysis
11.5.1 Increased Bio-Oil Yield
11.5.1.1 Type of Substrate
11.5.1.2 Particle Size
11.5.1.3 Temperature
11.5.1.4 Substrate to Biomass Ratio
11.5.1.5 Residence Time
11.5.2 Improved Oil Quality. 11.5.2.1 Influence of Bioreactor
11.5.2.2 Influence of Catalyst
11.5.3 Effect of Biomass-Different Substrates Co-Pyrolysis on By-Products
11.5.3.1 Microalgae and Plastic Waste
11.5.3.2 Microalgae and Coal
11.5.3.3 Microalgae and Tires
11.6 Future Perspectives
11.7 Conclusion
References
12. Pyrolysis of Caryota Urens Seeds: Fuel Properties and Compositional Analysis
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Types of Pyrolysis Reactor. 12.2.1 Fluidized Bed Reactor
12.2.2 Fixed Bed Reactor
12.2.3 Auger Reactor
12.2.4 Rotating Cone Pyrolysis Reactor
12.3 Materials and Methods. 12.3.1 Feedstock Preparation and Collection
12.3.2 Tubular Reactor for Conversion of Caryota Ures Seeds to Bio Oil
12.4 Product Analysis. 12.4.1 Characterization of Feedstock and Oil Yield
12.5 Kinetic Modelling
12.5.1 Kissinger Method for Activation Energy Calculation
12.5.2 Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS) Method for Activation Energy Calculation
12.5.3 Ozawa-Flynn-Wall (OFW) Method for Activation Energy Calculation
12.6 Result and Discussion. 12.6.1 Characterization of Feedstock
12.6.2 Product Yield
12.6.3 FTIR of Bio Oil
12.6.4 GCMS of Bio Oil
12.6.5 Thermogravimetric Analysis of Caryota Urens
12.6.6 Activation Energy Calculation Using Isoconversional Models. 12.6.6.1 Kissinger Method for Estimation of Activation Energy
12.6.6.2 KAS Method for Estimation of Activation Energy
12.6.6.3 The OFW Method
12.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
Nomenclature
References
13. Bio-Butanol as Biofuels: The Present and Future Scope
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Butanol Global Market
13.3 History of ABE Fermentation
13.4 Feedstocks. 13.4.1 Non-Lignocellulosic Feedstock
13.4.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass
13.4.3 Algae
13.4.4 Waste Sources
13.4.5 Glycerol
13.5 Pretreatment Techniques
13.5.1 Acid Pretreatment
13.5.2 Alkali Pretreatment
13.5.3 Organosolvent Pretreatment
13.5.4 Other Pretreatment
13.6 Fermentation Techniques
13.7 Conclusion
References
14. Application of Nanotechnology in the Production of Biofuel
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Various Nanoparticles Used for Production of Biofuel. 14.2.1 Magnetic Nanoparticles
14.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)
14.2.3 Graphene and Graphene Derived Nanomaterial for Biofuel
14.2.4 Other Nanoparticles Applied in Heterogeneous Catalysis for Biofuel Production
14.3 Factors Affecting the Performance of Nanoparticles in the Manufacturing Process of Biofuel
14.3.1 Nanoparticle Synthesis Temperature
14.3.2 Pressure During Synthesis of Nanoparticle
14.3.3 pH Influencing Synthesis of Nanoparticles
14.3.4 Size of Nanoparticles
14.4 Role of Nanomaterials in the Synthesis of Biofuels
14.5 Utilization of Nanomaterials for the Production of Biofuel. 14.5.1 Production of Biodiesel Using Nanocatalysts
14.5.2 Application of Nanomaterials for the Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass
14.5.3 Application of Nanomaterials in Synthesis of Cellulase and Stability
14.5.4 Application of Nano-Materials in the Hydrolysis of Lignocellulosic Biomass
14.5.5 Bio-Ethanol Production by Using Nanotechnology
14.5.6 Application of Nanotechnology in the Production of Bio-Ethanol or Cellulosic Ethanol
14.5.7 Up-Gradation of Biofuel by Using Nanotechnology
14.5.8 Use of Nanoparticles in Biorefinery
14.6 Conclusion
References
15. Experimental Investigation of Long Run Viability of Engine Oil Properties in DI Diesel Engine Fuelled with Diesel, Bioethanol and Biodiesel Blend
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Materials and Method
15.2.1 Fuel Properties
15.3 Test Procedure. 15.3.1 Engine Experimental Set Up
15.3.2 Methodology
15.4 Result Analysis. 15.4.1 Wear Measurements of Different Components
15.4.2 Deposits of Carbon on the Various Engine Components. 15.4.2.1 Cylinder Head and Piston Crown
15.4.2.2 Analysis Deposits on Fuel Injector
15.4.3 Analysis of Lubricating Oil. 15.4.3.1 Effect of Crankcase Dilution
15.4.3.1.1 Viscosity
15.4.3.1.2 Flash Point
15.4.3.1.3 Density
15.4.3.1.4 Analysis of Carbon Content
15.4.3.2 Analysis of Wear of Metals from Different Components
15.5 Conclusion
References
16. Studies on the Diesel Blends Oxidative Stability in Mixture with TBHQ Antioxidant and Soft Computation Approach Using ANN and RSM at Varying Blend Ratio
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Materials and Methodology. 16.2.1 Bio-Diesel Preparation and its Properties
16.2.2 Antioxidant Reagent
16.2.3 GC-MS Analysis
16.2.4 Oxidation Stability Determination
16.2.5 Uncertainty Analysis
16.2.6 Experimental Setup and Test Procedure
16.2.7 Response Surface Methodology
16.2.8 Artificial Neural Network
16.3 Results and Discussion. 16.3.1 Oxidation Stability Analysis
16.3.2 Performance and Emission Characteristics of CIB Diesel Blends
16.3.3 Brake-Specific Fuel Consumption
16.3.4 Brake Thermal Efficiency
16.3.5 Carbon Monoxide
16.3.6 Hydrocarbon
16.3.7 Nitrogen Oxides
16.3.8 Carbon Dioxide
16.3.9 Performance and Emission Characteristics of CIB Diesel Blends + TBHQ
16.3.10 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
16.3.11 Brake Thermal Efficiency
16.3.12 Carbon Monoxide
16.3.13 Hydrocarbon
16.3.14 Nitrogen Oxides
16.3.15 Carbon Dioxide
16.4 Response Surface Methodology for Performance Parameter. 16.4.1 Non-Linear Regression Model for Performance Parameter
16.4.2 Fit Summary for BSFC
16.4.3 ANOVA for Performance Parameters
16.4.4 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for BSFC
16.4.5 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for BTE
16.4.6 Non-Linear Regression Model for Emission Parameter
16.4.7 Fit Summary for Emission Parameters
16.4.8 ANOVA for Emission Parameters
16.4.9 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for CO
16.4.10 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for HC
16.4.11 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for NOx
16.4.12 Response Surface Plot and Contour Plot for CO2
16.5 Modelling of ANN
16.5.1 Prediction of Performance Characteristics
16.5.2 Prediction of Emission Characteristics
16.6 Validation of RSM and ANN
16.7 Conclusion
References
17. Effect of Nanoparticles in Bio-Oil on the Performance, Combustion and Emission Characteristics of a Diesel Engine
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Materials and Methods
17.2.1 Waste Mango Seed Oil Extraction
17.2.2 Transesterification Process
17.2.3 Preparation of Alumina Nanoparticles
17.3 Experimental Setup
17.3.1 Error and Uncertainty Analysis
17.4 Results and Discussion
17.4.1 Mango Seed Biodiesel Yield
17.4.2 Characterization of Alumina Nanoparticles
17.4.3 Diverse Characteristics of Diesel Engine
17.4.3.1 Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE)
17.4.3.2 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)
17.4.3.3 Cylinder Pressure (CP)
17.4.3.4 Heat Release Rate (HRR)
17.4.3.5 Carbon Monoxide Emissions (CO)
17.4.3.6 Carbon Dioxide Emissions (CO2)
17.4.3.7 Hydrocarbons Emissions (HC)
17.4.3.8 Nitrogen Oxides Emissions (NOX)
17.4.3.9 Smoke Opacity (SO)
17.5 Conclusions
Abbreviations
Nomenclature
References
18. Use of Optimization Techniques to Study the Engine Performance and Emission Analysis of Diesel Engine
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Engine Performance Optimization
18.2 Engine Parameter Optimization Using Taguchi’s S/N
18.3 Engine Parameter Optimization Using Response Surface Methodology
18.3.1 Analysis of Variance
18.4 Artificial Neural Networks
18.5 Genetic Algorithm
18.6 TOPSIS Algorithm
18.6.1 TOPSIS Method for Optimizing Engine Parameters
18.7 Grey Relational Analysis
18.8 Fuzzy Optimization
18.9 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
19. Engine Performance and Emission Analysis of Biodiesel-Diesel and Biomass Pyrolytic Oil-Diesel Blended Oil: A Comparative Study
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Experimental Analysis. 19.2.1 Production of Coconut Shell Pyrolysis Oil
19.2.2 Production of JME
19.3 Experimental Set-Up
19.3.1 Engine Specifications
19.3.2 Error Analysis
19.4 Results and Discussion. 19.4.1 Performance Parameters. 19.4.1.1 Brake Thermal Efficiency
19.4.1.2 BSFC
19.4.1.3 Exhaust Gas Temperature
19.4.2 Emission Parameters. 19.4.2.1 Carbon Monoxide
19.4.2.2 Hydrocarbons
19.4.2.3 NOx Emissions
19.4.2.4 Smoke Opacity
19.5 Conclusion
References
20. Agro-Waste for Second-Generation Biofuels
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Agro-Wastes
20.3 Value-Addition of Agro-Wastes
20.4 Production of Second-Generation Biofuels. 20.4.1 Biogas
20.4.2 Biohydrogen
20.4.3 Bioethanol
20.4.4 Biobutanol
20.4.5 Biomethanol
20.4.6 Conclusion
References
Index
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