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Группа авторов. Whole Grains and Health
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Whole Grains and Health
Preface
Editors’ Biographies
Acknowledgments
Contributing Authors
Supplementary Material
1 The Structure of Cereal Grains and Their Products
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Grain structure
1.3 Embryo
1.4 Endosperm
1.5 Bran
1.5.1 Pericarp
1.5.2 Testa
1.5.3 Aleurone layer
1.6 Rolled cereals and porridge
1.7 Protein network‐based products
1.7.1 Bread
1.7.2 Sourdough bread
1.7.3 Cakes
1.7.4 Pasta
1.8 Starch network‐based products
1.8.1 Whole grain flakes
1.8.2 Puffed‐grain cereals
1.8.3 Extruded breakfast cereals and snacks
1.8.4 Crispbread
1.9 Conclusions
1.10 References
2 Definition of Whole Grain and Determination of Content in Cereal Products
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Definition of whole grain in different countries
2.2.1 AACC International and American Whole Grain Council definitions of whole grain
2.2.2 Whole grain definition in Denmark and the Scandinavian Keyhole
2.2.3 The HealthGrain definition of whole grain
2.3 Definition of whole grain food
2.4 Recommendations for intake of whole grain foods
2.5 Dietary recommendations for whole grain intake
2.6 Markers for whole grain wheat and rye content in food
2.7 Effects of processing on whole grain
2.8 References
3 Whole grain Fractions and Their Utilization in Foods
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Cereal technologies to obtain fractions from whole grains
3.3 The starchy endosperm fraction – a good source of energy
3.4 The germ fraction – the most unstable of cereal fractions
3.5 Bran fractions – a source of micronutrients to exploit?
3.6 Innovative fractions
3.6.1 The aleurone fraction – richest in micronutrients and phytochemicals
3.6.2 From a grain tissue separation to isolation of macromolecules
3.7 Conclusion
3.8 References
4 Whole grain Carbohydrates
4.1 Introduction
4.2 General composition of whole grain carbohydrates
4.3 Dietary fibre
4.3.1 Arabinoxylan
4.3.2 β‐glucans
4.3.3 Other Cereal Dietary Fibres
4.3.4 Starch
4.4 Carbohydrate quality of whole grain foods
4.5 Slow digestion property of starch
4.6 Physical form of whole grain foods
4.7 Digestibility of dietary fibre
4.8 Phytochemicals
4.9 Future perspectives
4.10 References
5 Whole grain Content of Cereal Products
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Why is it important to know the whole grain content of food?
5.2.1 How whole grain content of cereal products has been reported
5.2.2 Quantifying whole grain content
5.2.3 Whole grain contents in different cereal foods
a. Bread
b. Breakfast cereals
c. Cooked cereal foods
d. Sweet baked goods, snacks and other products
5.2.4 Measuring the whole grain content of foods
5.2.5 Reporting whole grain content in foods in clinical trials
5.3 How can we better measure whole grain content and intake in the future?
5.4 References
6 Whole grain consumption and associated lifestyle and sociodemographic factors
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Global whole grain intake
6.3 Whole grain intake according to Mica et al. (2015)
6.4 Single studies of whole grain intake
6.5 Consumers of whole grains
6.6 Recommendations and compliance with recommendations
6.7 Different cereal and product sources of whole grains
6.8 Factors associated with whole grain intake
6.9Acknowledgements
6.10 References
7 Alkylresorcinols and Their Metabolites as Biomarkers for Whole grain Wheat and Rye
7.1 Introduction
7.2 What is a biomarker?
7.3 Dietary biomarkers
7.3.1 Biomarker features
7.4 Discovery and validation of a biomarker. 7.4.1 Approaches for biomarker discovery
7.4.2 Biomarker evaluation
7.5 Biomarkers of whole grain intake and cereal fibre
7.6 Alkylresorcinols as biomarkers of whole grain wheat and rye
7.6.1 Occurrence
7.6.2 Intake
7.6.3 Absorption
7.6.4 Distribution
7.6.5 Metabolism
7.6.6 Excretion
7.7 Analytical methods
7.8 Dose‐response
7.9 Reproducibility
7.10 Relative validity
7.11 Applications
7.12 Interventions
7.13 References
8 Body Composition and Weight Management
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Obesity prevalence around the globe
8.3 Abdominal adiposity and cardiometabolic risk
8.4 Studies investigating the link between body weight and whole grain consumption
8.5 Defining grain ingredients and foods in observational studies
8.6 Defining grain ingredients and foods in intervention studies
8.7 Evidence from observational studies. 8.7.1 Cross‐sectional studies
8.7.2 Prospective cohort studies
8.8 Intervention studies
8.9 Studies without calorie‐restriction
8.10 Studies with calorie‐restriction
8.11 Proposed mechanism of action by which whole grains influence weight gain
8.12 Conclusion. 8.12.1 Summary of the evidence
8.12.2 Future directions
8.13 Acknowledgements
8.14 References
9 Whole Grains and Type 2 Diabetes
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Evidence from epidemiological studies
9.2.1 Prospective studies
9.2.2 Cross‐sectional studies
9.3 Evidence from randomized controlled trials
9.4 Potential biological mechanisms
9.5 Conclusions and future directions
References
10 Whole Grains and Cardiovascular Disease
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Whole grains and CVD
10.3 Summary
10.4 References
11 Whole Grains and Cancer Risk
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Diet and cancer
11.3 Dietary fibre and colorectal cancer risk
11.4 Possible cancer protective mechanisms
11.5 Colorectal cancer
11.5.1 Alkylresorcinols and colorectal cancer
11.6 Breast cancer
11.7 Other cancers
11.8 Cancer patients and prognosis
11.9 Epidemiological evidence – colorectal cancer
11.10 Epidemiological evidence – breast cancer
11.11 Epidemiological evidence – prostate cancer
11.12 Epidemiological evidence – endometrial cancer
11.13 Epidemiological evidence – stomach cancer
11.14 Epidemiological evidence – whole grains and cancer prognosis
11.15 Conclusion
11.16 Acknowledgments
11.17 References
12 Whole Grain Intake and Mortality
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Epidemiological evidence. 12.2.1 Whole grains and mortality
12.2.2 Total mortality
12.2.3 Cardiovascular mortality
12.2.4 Total cancer mortality
12.2.5 Other causes of death
12.2.6 Summary
12.3 Types of whole grain products and varieties of grain
12.4 Dietary patterns with whole grains and mortality
12.5 Human intervention studies
12.6 Cell and animal studies
12.7 Conclusion
12.8 References
13 Whole Grains and Appetite
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Acute effects of whole grain intake on appetite
13.3 Potential mechanisms of acute effects of whole grain intake on appetite. 13.3.1 Gastric emptying and distension
13.3.2 Lower glucose and insulin responses
13.3.3 Summary of potential mechanisms
13.4 Impact of whole grain characteristics on appetite and suggested mechanisms
13.4.1 Dietary fibre content
13.4.2 Structure and particle size
13.4.3 Cereal type
13.5 Second‐meal effects of whole grain intake on appetite
13.5.1 Evidence from second meal studies
13.5.2 Potential Mechanisms of second‐meal effects on appetite
13.5.2.1 GLP‐1, PYY and gastric emptying
13.5.2.2 Ghrelin
13.5.2.3 Glucose and insulin response
13.5.2.4 Summary of potential mechanisms
13.6 Influence of whole grain characteristics on appetite and suggested mechanisms
13.7 Long‐term effects of regular whole grain intake on appetite
13.7.1 Evidence from intervention studies
13.7.2 Potential mechanisms of long‐term effects on appetite
13.7.2.1 PYY and GLP‐1
13.7.2.2 Leptin
13.7.3 Potential adaption of appetite sensation to whole grain intake
13.8 Concluding remarks
13.9 References
14 Modulating Glycaemia with Cereal Products
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Postprandial glucose fluxes and hormonal responses determining glycaemia
14.3 Postprandial glucose fluxes – monitoring with the stable isotope technique
14.4 Glycaemia and underlying glucose fluxes – results of isotope studies. 14.4.1 Postprandial glycaemia and glucose fluxes
14.4.2 Second‐meal glycaemia and glucose fluxes
14.4.3 Postprandial glycaemia and hormonal response
14.5 Food factors influencing GIP release
14.6 Food factors influencing GLP‐1 release
14.7 Conclusion
14.8 General implications
14.9 References
15 Whole Grains, Cereal Fibre and the Gut Function
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Whole grains and influence on gut physiology. 15.2.1 Importance of molecular structure and solubility
15.2.2 Gastrointestinal transit time
15.2.3 Nutrient absorption
15.3 The intestinal gut microbiome
15.3.1 Whole grain cereals and the intestinal microbiome
15.4 Microbial fermentation end‐products and their impact for gut function
15.5 Microbiome mediated benefits of whole grain consumption
15.6 References
16. Bioactive Compounds in Whole Grains and Their Implications for Health
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Folate. 16.2.1 Chemical characteristics
16.2.2 Folate content in cereals
16.2.3 The effect of food processing on folate content
16.2.4 Bioavailability and health implications of folate
16.2.5 Folate and cancer
16.3 Glycine betaine, choline and trigonelline
16.4 Tocopherols and tocotrienols. 16.4.1 Chemical characteristics, contents in cereals and effects of food processing
16.4.2 Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and health implications
16.5 Carotenoids. 16.5.1 Chemical characteristics, contents in cereals and effects of food processing
16.5.2 Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and health implications
16.6 Plant Sterols. 16.6.1 Chemical characteristics, contents in cereals and effects of food processing
16.6.2 Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and health implications
16.6.3 Plant sterols and cancer
16.7 Inositol phosphates. 16.7.1 Chemical characteristics and abundance of inositol phosphates in cereals
16.7.2 Effects of food processing on inositol phosphate content
16.7.3 Absorption, distribution, metabolism and health implications
16.7.4 Inositol phosphates and cancer
16.8 Lignans. 16.8.1 Chemical characteristics, contents in cereals and effects of food processing
16.8.2 Absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and health implications
16.8.3 Lignans and cancer
16.9 Phenolic acids. 16.9.1 Chemical characteristics, contents in cereals and effects of food processing
16.9.2 Absorption, distribution, metabolism and health implications
16.9.3 Phenolic acids and cancer
16.10 Avenanthramides. 16.10.1 Chemical characteristics, contents in cereals and effects of food processing
16.10.2 Bioavailability, metabolism and health implications
16.10.3 Avenanthramides and cancer
16.11 Benzoxazinoids. 16.11.1 Chemical characteristics, content in cereals and effects of food processing
16.11.2 Absorption, metabolism and health implications
16.12 Alkylresorcinols. 16.12.1 Chemical characteristics, contents in cereals and effects of food processing
16.12.2 Absorption, distribution, metabolism and health implications
16.13 References
17 Potential Negative Effects of Whole grain Consumption
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Allergies associated with grain intake
17.3 Non‐allergic conditions associated with wheat, barley and rye intake
17.4 The heavy metal cadmium
17.5 The mineral absorption inhibitor phytate
17.6 Anti‐nutrient properties of phenolic compounds
17.7 The heat‐induced toxicant acrylamide
17.8 Conclusion and future perspectives
17.9 References
18 Application of Metabolomics for the Assessment of Process‐induced Changes in Whole Grain Foods
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Targeted versus untargeted approaches
18.3 Bioactive compounds present in whole grain cereals
18.4 Processing of grains
18.5 Milling
18.6 Germination and malting
18.7 Soaking/hydrothermal processing of grains
18.8 Baking and roasting
18.9 Pasta processing and extrusion cooking
18.10 Fermentation and bioprocessing
18.11 Bioactives in human intervention studies
18.12 Conclusion
18.13 References
19 Application of Metabolomics for the Assessment of Health Effects of Whole grain Foods
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Study designs
19.2.1 Acute postprandial interventions
19.2.2 Short‐ to medium‐term interventions
19.3 Metabolomics in epidemiological studies on whole grains and health
19.4 Whole grain research on animal models utilizing metabolomics
19.5 Conclusion and future prospects
19.6 References
20 Using Transcriptomics and RNA Sequencing to Assess Health Effects of Whole Grains
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Transcriptomics and RNA sequencing
20.3 Effects of whole grains on gene expression
20.4 Conclusion
20.5 References
21 Whole Grains from an Industry Perspective
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Whole grains in foods
21.3 Whole grain raw materials
21.3.1 Dry milling
21.3.2 Milling techniques
21.4 Whole grains in manufactured foods
21.4.1 Whole grains in traditional breakfast cereals
21.5 Whole grains in extruded products
21.6 Sensory characteristics
21.7 Whole grains and food safety
21.8 Outlook and research needs
21.9 References
22 Global Regulation and Labeling, Claims and Communication with Consumers
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Global regulation on whole grain labelling
22.2.1 Canada
22.2.2 Europe. 22.2.2.1 Germany
22.2.2.2 Italy
22.2.2.3 The Netherlands
22.2.2.4 The Nordic countries
22.2.2.5 United Kingdom
22.2.3 The United States of America
22.3 Nutrition and health claims
22.3.1 Nutrition claims
22.3.1.1 Australia
22.3.1.2 Europe
22.3.1.3 The United States of America
22.3.2 Health claims
22.3.2.1 Canada
22.3.2.2 Europe
22.3.2.3 Singapore
22.3.2.4 The United States of America
22.4 Communication with consumers
22.4.1 Australia
22.4.2 Canada
22.4.3 Europe. 22.4.3.1 Denmark
22.4.3.2 Hungary
22.4.3.3 The Netherlands
22.4.4 Singapore
22.4.5 The United States of America
22.5 Conclusion
22.6 Acknowledgments
22.7 References
Summary. The future of whole grains and health
Index
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