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Группа авторов. Handbook of Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Handbook of Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering
List of Contributors
Preface
1 Ecological Engineering and Ecosystem Services – Theory and Practice
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Ecological Engineering: History and Definition
1.3 Ecosystem Services: History, Concepts, and Dimensions
1.3.1 Sizing Ecosystem Services
1.3.2 Agriculture and Ecosystem Services
1.4 Final Considerations: Challenges for the Future
References
Notes
2 Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering for Economic‐Environmental Revitalization
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Revitalization of Physical/Environmental Factors
2.2.1 Low Temperature
2.2.2 Limited Soil Drainage and Shallow Rooting Depth
2.2.3 Unfavorable Texture and Stoniness
2.2.4 Sloping Areas
2.2.5 Dryness
2.2.6 Waterlogging
2.3 Revitalization of Chemical Factors. 2.3.1 Acidity
2.3.2 Heavy Metals and Organic Contaminants
2.3.3 Salinity and Sodicity
2.4 Economic Revitalization of Degraded Soil Ecosystems
2.5 Conclusions
References
3 Environmental Issues and Priority Areas for Ecological Engineering Initiatives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Basic Concepts of Ecological Engineering
3.3 Practice and Implication of Ecological Engineering
3.4 Priority Areas for Ecological Engineering
3.4.1 Coastal Ecosystem Restoration
3.4.2 Mangrove Restoration
3.4.3 River and Wetland Restoration
3.4.4 Ecological Engineering in Soil Restoration and Agriculture
3.5 Conclusion
References
Notes
4 Soil Meso‐ and Macrofauna Indicators of Restoration Success in Rehabilitated Mine Sites
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Restoration to Combat Land Degradation
4.3 Mine Rehabilitation. 4.3.1 Mine Tailings
4.3.2 Rehabilitation of Mine Tailings
4.3.3 The Challenge of Metal Mine Rehabilitation
4.4 Restoration Success Assessment: Monitoring Diversity, Vegetation, and Ecological Processes
4.4.1 Monitoring Diversity
4.4.2 Vegetation
4.4.3 Ecological Processes
4.5 Gaps in the Assessment of Restoration Success in Mine Sites
4.6 Increasing Restoration Success by Enhancing Soil Biodiversity and Soil Multifunctionality
4.7 Using Keystone Species and Ecosystem Engineers in Restoration
4.7.1 Earthworms
4.7.2 Ants
4.7.3 Termites
4.7.4 Collembola and Mites
4.8 Conclusions and Further Perspective for the Restoration of Metalliferous Tailings
Acknowledgements
References
5 Ecological Engineering and Green Infrastructure in Mitigating Emerging Urban Environmental Threats
5.1 Dimensions of Ecological Engineering in the Frame of Ecosystem Service Provision
5.2 Landfill Afteruse Practices Based on Ecological Engineering and Green Infrastructure. 5.2.1 Old Landfill Closure and Rehabilitation Procedures
5.2.2 Landfill Restoration Examples Around the World. 5.2.2.1 Conventional Landfill Closure (Campulung, Romania)
5.2.2.2 Elbauenpark Including Am Cracauer Anger Landfill (Magdeburg, Germany)
5.2.2.3 World Cup Park (Nanjido Landfill, Seoul, South Korea)
5.2.2.4 Fudekeng Environmental Restoration Park (Taiwan)
5.2.2.5 Hong Kong
5.2.2.6 Hyria Landfill Site (Tel Aviv, Israel)
5.2.2.7 Valdemingomez Forest Park (Madrid, Spain)
5.2.2.8 Freshkills Park – A Mega Restoration Project in the US
5.3 Role of Ecological Engineering in Transforming Brownfields into Greenfields
5.3.1 UGI Options for Brownfield Recycling
5.3.2 Pilot Case: Restoration of a Brownfield to Provide ES – Albert Railway Station (Dresden, Germany) Transformation into the Weißeritz Greenbelt
5.4 Green Infrastructures for Mitigating Urban Transport‐Induced Threats
5.4.1 Transportation Heritage from the Industrial Period
5.4.2 The Cases of the Rose Kennedy Greenway and Cheonggyecheon River Restoration. 5.4.2.1 The Concept: Expressway‐to‐Greenway Conversion
5.4.2.2 Environmental Efficiency and Effectiveness
5.4.2.3 Social Impact
5.4.2.4 Economic Efficiency
5.5 Conclusions
References
6 Urban Environmental Issues and Mitigation by Applying Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering
6.1 Urbanization
6.2 Global Trends of Urbanization and Its Consequences
6.3 Urban Environmental Issues
6.3.1 Physical Urban Environmental Issues. 6.3.1.1 Urban Heat Islands
6.3.1.2 Urban Flooding
6.3.1.3 Urban Pollution (Air, Water, Noise) and Waste Management
6.3.1.3.1 Air Pollution
6.3.1.3.2 Water Pollution
6.3.1.3.3 Noise Pollution
6.3.2 Biological Urban Environmental Issues. 6.3.2.1 Declining Urban Ecosystem Services Due to Loss of Biodiversity
6.3.2.2 Increasing Disease Epidemiology
6.4 Ecosystem Engineering
6.5 Approaches for Mitigation of Urban Environmental Issues. 6.5.1 Nature‐Based Solutions
6.5.1.1 Green Infrastructure (GI)
6.5.1.1.1 Health Benefits of Urban Green Infrastructure
6.5.1.2 Urban Wetlands and Riparian Forests
6.5.1.3 Solar Energy
6.5.2 Artificial Engineering Approaches. 6.5.3 Landfill Gas as an Alternative Source of Energy: Waste to Wealth
6.5.3.1 Wastewater/Sewage Treatment Plants as Sources of Energy
6.5.3.2 Rainwater Harvesting
6.5.3.3 Constructed Floating Islands for Water Treatment
6.5.3.4 Microgrids
6.6 Future Perspective
Acknowledgments
References
7 Soil Fertility Restoration, Theory and Practice
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Materials and Methods
7.3 Results
7.4 Discussion and Conclusions
Acknowledgment
References
8 Extracellular Soil Enzymes Act as Moderators to Restore Carbon in Soil Habitats
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Soil Organic Matter (SOM)
8.3 Soil Organic Carbon (SOC)
8.4 Soil Carbon Sequestration
8.5 Extracellular Soil Enzymes
8.6 Interactive Role of Extracellular Soil Enzymes in Soil Carbon Transformation
8.6.1 Cellulase
8.6.2 β‐Glucosidase
8.6.3 Invertase
8.6.4 Amylase
8.6.5 Xylanase
8.7 Conclusion
References
9 Ecological Engineering for Solid Waste Segregation, Reduction, and Resource Recovery – A Contextual Analysis in Brazil
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Municipal Solid Waste in Brazil
9.3 Compostable Waste
9.4 Anaerobic Digestion
9.5 Recycling
9.6 Burning Waste Tires
9.7 Energy Recovery
9.8 Coprocessing Industrial Waste in Cement Kilns
9.9 Conclusions
References
10 Urban Floods and Mitigation by Applying Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering
10.1 Sustainable Ecosystems through Engineering Approaches
10.2 Flooding and, Specifically, Urban Flooding as a Problem of Interest
10.3 Causes and Impacts of Urban Flooding
10.4 Protection Against and Mitigation of Urban Flooding in the Context of Sustainability
10.4.1 Living with Floods as a Sustainable Approach
10.4.2 Urban Flood Risk Management
10.4.3 Integrated and Interactive Flood Management
10.4.4 Structural and Nonstructural Measures for Flood Control
10.4.5 River and Wetland Restoration
10.4.6 Low Impact Development (LID) and Best Management Practices (BMPs)
10.5 Conclusions and Future Scope
References
11 Ecological Engineering and Restoration of Mine Ecosystems
11.1 Background and Definitions
11.2 Ecological Criteria for Successful Mine Site Restoration
11.3 Examples of Reclamation Technology and Afforestation in Mining Areas
11.4 Selected Reclamation Practices Versus Mining Extraction and Environmental Conditions
11.5 Final Comments and Remarks
References
12 Ecological Restoration of Abandoned Mine Land: Theory to Practice
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Integration of Ecology Theory, Restoration Ecology, and Ecological Restoration
12.2.1 Disturbance
12.2.2 Succession
12.2.3 Fragmentation
12.2.4 Ecosystem Functions
12.2.5 Restoration
12.2.6 Reclamation
12.2.7 Rehabilitation
12.2.8 Regeneration
12.2.9 Recovery
12.3 Restoration Planning
12.4 Components of Restoration
12.4.1 Natural Processes
12.4.2 Physical and Nutritional Constraints
12.4.3 Species Diversity
12.5 Afforestation of Mine‐Degraded Land
12.5.1 Miyawaki Planting Methods
12.6 Methods of Evaluating Ecological Restoration Success
12.6.1 Criteria for Restoration Success
12.6.2 Indicator Parameters of a Restored Ecosystem
12.6.3 Soil Quality Index
12.7 Development of a Post‐Mining Ecosystem: A Case Study in India
12.8 Conclusions and Future Research
References
13 Wetland, Watershed, and Lake Restoration
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Renovation of Wastewater
13.2.1 Physical Methods
13.2.2 Chemical Methods
13.2.3 Biological Methods
13.2.4 Other Methods
13.3 Restoration of Bodies of Water
13.3.1 Watersheds
13.3.2 Wetlands
13.3.2.1 Methods of Restoring Wetlands
13.3.3 Rivers
13.3.4 Lakes
13.3.5 Streams
13.3.6 Case Studies
13.4 Problems Encountered in Restoration Projects
13.5 Conclusion
References
14 Restoration of Riverine Health : An Ecohydrological Approach –Flow Regimes and Aquatic Biodiversity
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Habitat Ecology
14.2.1 Riverine Habitats
14.2.2 Linked Ecosystems
14.3 Riverine Issues
14.3.1 Bank Erosion, Siltation, and Aggradations of Rivers
14.3.2 Deforestation in Catchment Areas
14.3.3 River Pollution and Invasive Species
14.3.4 Fishing Pressure
14.3.5 Status of Wetlands (FPLs)
14.3.6 Regulated Rivers and Their Impacts
14.4 Ecorestoration of River Basins. 14.4.1 Environmental Flow
14.4.2 Success Story of a Conservation Effort for Aquatic Fauna. 14.4.2.1 River Dolphins
14.4.2.2 Hilsa Fishery
14.4.3 Biomonitoring of Riverine Health and Ecosystem Engineering
14.4.4 Integrated River Basin Management
14.5 Summary and Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
15 Ecosystem Services of the Phoomdi Islands of Loktak, a Dying Ramsar Site in Northeast India
15.1 What Are Ecosystem Services?
15.2 Phoomdi Islands of Loktak
15.3 Ecosystem Degradation of Loktak
15.4 Ecosystem Services Provided by the Phoomdi Islands of Loktak
15.5 Phoomdi and Provisioning Services
15.6 Phoomdi as Reservoirs of Biodiversity
15.7 Phoomdi and Fisheries
15.8 Phoomdi and Cultural Services
15.9 Phoomdi and Regulating Services
15.10 Phoomdi and Supporting Services
15.11 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
16 The Application of Reefs in Shoreline Protection
16.1 General Introduction
16.2 Types of Coral Reefs
16.3 Global Distribution of Coral Reefs
16.4 Benefits of Coral Reefs
16.5 Threats to Coral Reefs
16.5.1 Global Threats
16.5.1.1 Ocean Acidification
16.5.1.2 Coral Bleaching
16.5.1.3 Cyclones
16.5.2 Local Threats
16.5.2.1 Over‐Fishing and Destructive Fishing Methods
16.5.2.2 Coastal Development
16.5.2.3 Recreational Activities
16.5.2.4 Sedimentation
16.5.2.5 Coral Mining and Harvesting
16.5.2.6 Pollution
16.5.2.7 Invasive Species
16.6 Important Coral Reefs of the World
16.7 The Application of Reefs in Shoreline Protection
16.7.1 Coral Reefs
16.7.2 Oyster Reefs
16.7.3 Artificial Reefs
16.7.4 Coral Reef Restoration
16.7.5 Oyster Reef Restoration
16.8 Conclusion
References
17 Mangroves, as Shore Engineers, Are Nature‐Based Solutions for Ensuring Coastal Protection
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Sundarban: A Case Study
17.3 Restoration Models
17.4 Methodology
17.5 Results and Analysis
17.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
18 Forest Degradation Prevention Through Nature‐Based Solutions : An Indian Perspective
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Causes of Forests Degradation and Present Status Forests in India
18.3 Effects of Forest Degradation
18.4 Forest Degradation Management Strategies
18.5 Policies for Preventing Forest Degradation
18.6 Ecological Engineering: A Tool for Restoration of Degraded Forests
18.7 Forest Landscape Restoration: A Nature‐Based Solution
18.8 Success Stories of ER from India
18.9 Yamuna Biodiversity Park
18.10 Ecological Restoration in Corbett National Park
18.11 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
19 Restoring Ecosystem Services of Degraded Forests in a Changing Climate
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Role of Forests in Maintaining Ecological Balance and Providing Services
19.2.1 Forests and Rainfall
19.2.2 Forests and Carbon Sequestration
19.2.3 Forests and Climate
19.2.4 Forests and Soil Erosion
19.2.5 Forest and Water Quality
19.3 Types of Forests in India
19.4 Forest Degradation
19.4.1 Invasive Alien Species
19.4.2 Forest Fires
19.4.3 Overpopulation and Exploitation of Forest Resources
19.4.4 Overgrazing
19.5 Impacts of Forest Degradation
19.5.1 Carbon Sequestration
19.6 Nutritional Status of Soil
19.7 Hydrological Regimes
19.8 Ecological Services
19.9 Social Implications
19.10 Methods for Restoring and Rehabilitating Forests
19.11 Conclusion
References
20 Forest Degradation Prevention
20.1 Introduction
20.2 The Problem of Forest Degradation
20.3 Assessing Levels of Forest Degradation
20.4 Drivers of Forest Degradation
20.4.1 Strategies to Address Causes of Forest Degradation
20.4.2 The Hierarchy of Land Degradation Responses
20.5 The Role of Forest Management in Degradation Prevention
20.5.1 Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) for Prevention of Degradation and the Restoration of Degraded Areas
20.6 Conclusions – Prioritization and Implementation
References
21 Use of Plants for Air Quality Improvement
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Current Status of Air Pollutants
21.3 Green Roofs, Urban Forests, and Air Pollution
21.4 Traits for Phytoremediation of Air Pollution
21.4.1 Physiological and Biochemical Traits
21.5 Conclusions
References
22 Phylloremediation for Mitigating Air Pollution
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Significance of Tree Canopy Architecture and Types of Canopies for Mitigating Air Pollution
22.3 Air‐Improving Qualities of Plants. 22.3.1 Dust‐Capturing Mechanisms Using Plants
22.3.2 Environmental Factors for Efficient Dust Capture by Plants
22.3.2.1 Light Intensity
22.3.2.2 Moisture
22.3.2.3 Wind Velocity
22.4 Effects of Vegetation on Urban Air Quality
22.4.1 Interception and Absorption of Pollution
22.4.2 Temperature Effects
22.4.3 Impact on Energy Use
22.5 Urban Air Quality Improvement through Dust‐Capturing Plant Species
Acknowledgments
References
23 Green Belts for Sustainable Improvement of Air Quality
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Tolerance of Plants to Air Pollutants
23.2.1 Agro‐Climates in India
23.2.2 Green Belts
23.2.3 Choosing Plant Species
23.2.4 Designing Green Belts. 23.2.4.1 Ground‐Level Concentration (GLC) of Emitted Pollutants
23.2.4.2 Mathematical Model
23.2.4.3 Two Approaches
23.2.4.4 Planting Along Roadsides
23.2.4.5 Choice of Plants for Roadsides
23.2.4.6 Nurturing Green Belts
23.3 Conclusion
References
24 Air Quality Improvement Using Phytodiversity and Plant Architecture
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Phytodiversity
24.3 Plant Architecture
24.3.1 Leaf Architecture – Regulation of Leaf Position
24.3.2 Development of Internal Leaf Architecture
24.4 Phytoremediation
24.4.1 Role of Plants During Particulate Matter and Gaseous Phytoremediation
24.4.2 Ways of Improving Air Quality. 24.4.2.1 Outdoor Air Pollutants
24.4.2.2 Indoor Air Pollutants
24.4.2.3 Phyllosphere Microorganisms
24.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
25 Information Explosion in Digital Ecosystems and Their Management
25.1 Introduction
25.1.1 Digital Computers
25.1.2 Modern Architectures for Computer Systems
25.1.3 Microprocessors
25.1.4 Networks of Computers
25.1.5 Development of Databases
25.1.6 Data as Knowledge
25.2 Growth
25.2.1 Traditional Models for Growth
25.2.2 Growth Curves
25.2.3 Limits of Growth
25.2.4 Growth vs. Life
25.3 Sustainability
25.3.1 Production vs. Consumption
25.4 Knowledge vs. Information
25.5 Circulation of Information
25.6 Quality vs. Quantity
25.6.1 Case Study 1: Facebook and Cambridge Analytica Scandal
25.6.2 Case Study 2: Aarogya Setu Mobile App by National Informatics Centre (NIC) of the GoI
25.7 How Does the Digital Ecosystem Work?
25.7.1 Digital Ecosystem and Sustainable Development
25.7.2 SDG 4: Quality Education
25.7.3 SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
25.7.4 SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure
25.7.5 SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
25.7.6 SDG 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
25.8 Conclusions
References
26 Nanotechnology in Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering
26.1 Ecology, Ecosystem, and Ecosystem Engineering
26.2 Nanomaterials, Nanotechnology, and Nanoscience
26.3 Nanotechnology in Ecological and Ecosystem‐Engineering
26.4 Nanotechnology to Remediate Environmental Pollution
26.5 Environmental Remediation
26.6 Surface Water Remediation
26.6.1 Adsorption
26.6.2 Photocatalysis
26.6.3 Disinfection
26.6.4 Nanomembranes
26.7 Groundwater Remediation and Soil Remediation
26.8 Air Remediation
26.9 Future Scope of Nanotechnology and Nanoscience in Ecological and Ecosystem Engineering
References
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