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Группа авторов. Biodiesel Technology and Applications
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Tables
Guide
Pages
Biodiesel Technology and Applications
Preface
1. Biocatalytic Processes for Biodiesel Production
1.1 Introduction and Background
1.2 Importance of Biodiesel Over Conventional Diesel Fuel
1.3 Substrates for Biodiesel Production
1.4 Methods in Biodiesel Production
1.5 Types of Catalysts Involved in Biodiesel Production
1.5.1 Chemical Homogenous Catalysts
1.5.2 Solid Heterogeneous Catalysts
1.5.3 Biocatalysts
1.6 Factors Affecting Enzymatic Transesterification Reaction
1.6.1 Effect of Water in Enzyme Catalyzed Transesterification
1.6.2 Effect of Bioreactor
1.6.3 Effect of Acyl Acceptor on Enzymatic Production of Biodiesel
1.6.4 Effect of Temperature on Enzymatic Biodiesel Production
1.6.5 Effect of Glycerol on Enzymatic Biodiesel Production
1.6.6 Effect of Solvent on Biodiesel Production
1.7 Lipases as Biocatalysts for Biodiesel Production
1.7.1 Mechanisms of Lipase Action
1.7.2 Efficient Lipase Sources for Biodiesel Producing Biocatalyst
1.8 Comparative Analysis of Intracellular and Extracellular Lipases for Biodiesel Production
1.9 Recombinant Lipases for Cost-Effective Biodiesel Production
1.10 Immobilization of Lipases for Better Biodiesel Production
1.11 Recent Strategies to Improve Biodiesel Production. 1.11.1 Combination of Lipases
1.11.2 Microwave and Ultrasonic-Assisted Reaction
1.12 Lipase Catalyzed Reaction Modeling and Statistical Approaches for Reaction Optimization
1.13 Conclusion and Summary
References
2. Application of Low-Frequency Ultrasound for Intensified Biodiesel Production Process
2.1 Current Fossil Fuel Scenario
2.2 Biodiesel
2.3 Transesterification
2.4 Challenges for Improved Biodiesel Production
2.5 Homogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production
2.6 Heterogeneous Catalyst for Biodiesel Production
2.7 Immiscibility of the Reactants
2.8 Ultrasound-Assisted Biodiesel Production Process. 2.8.1 Fundamental Aspects of the Process
2.8.2 Homogeneously Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System
2.8.3 Heterogeneously Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System. 2.8.3.1 Heterogeneously Acid Catalyzed System
2.8.3.2 Heterogeneous-Based Catalyzed Ultrasound-Assisted System
2.8.3.3 Influence of Reaction Parameters
2.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgement
References
3. Application of Catalysts in Biodiesel Production
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Homogeneous Catalysis for the Biodiesel Production
3.2.1 Homogeneous Acid Catalyst
3.2.2 Homogeneous-Base Catalyst
3.3 Heterogeneous Catalyst
3.3.1 Heterogeneous Acid Catalyst
3.3.2 Heterogeneous-Base Catalyst
3.4 Biocatalysts
3.5 Conclusion
References
4. Hydrogenolysis as a Means of Valorization of Biodiesel-Derived Glycerol: A Review
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Ways of Valorization of Biodiesel-Derived Glycerol
4.2.1 Catalytic Conversion of Glycerol Into Value-Added Commodities
4.2.1.1 Catalytic Oxidation of Glycerol
4.2.1.2 Catalytic Dehydration of Glycerol
4.2.1.3 Pyrolysis of Bioglycerol
4.2.1.4 Glycerol Transesterification
4.2.1.5 Glycerol Direct Carboxylation
4.3 Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol. 4.3.1 Definition of Hydrogenolysis
4.3.2 Catalytic Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol
4.3.3 Product Spectrum from Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol
4.3.4 Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol to 1,2-PDO (Propylene Glycol): Reaction Systems Overview
4.3.5 Catalyst Selection
4.3.6 Reaction Conditions That Influence the Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol to 1,2-PDO
4.3.6.1 Effect of Reaction Temperature
4.3.6.2 Effect of H2 Pressure
4.3.6.3 Effect of Initial Water Concentration
4.3.6.4 Effect of Reaction Time
4.3.6.5 Effect of Catalyst Weight
4.3.6.6 Proposed Reaction Mechanisms for Glycerol Hydrogenolysis to Produce 1,2-PDO
4.4 Conclusion
References
5. Current Status, Synthesis, and Characterization of Biodiesel
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Status of Biodiesel in India
5.3 Biodiesel Production in India. 5.3.1 Feedstocks Popular in India
5.3.1.1 Jatropha (Jatropha curcas) Oil
5.3.1.2 Pongamia Oil
5.3.1.3 Mahua Oil
5.3.1.4 Neem Oil
5.3.1.5 Linseed Oil
5.3.1.6 Rubber Seed Oil
5.3.1.7 Tobacco Oil
5.3.1.8 Castor
5.3.1.9 Waste Cooking Oil
5.3.1.10 Algae Oil
5.3.2 Advantages of Non-Edible Oils
5.3.3 Modification Techniques. 5.3.3.1 Blending
5.3.3.2 Micro-Emulsification
5.3.3.3 Cracking
5.3.3.4 Transesterification
5.3.4 Biodiesel Production Methodology. 5.3.4.1 Catalytic Transesterification
5.3.4.2 Non-Catalytic Transesterification
5.3.5 Optimization Methodology for Biodiesel. 5.3.5.1 Central Composite Design Technique
5.3.5.2 Box Behnken Technique
5.4 Properties of Biodiesel
5.5 Analytical Methods
5.5.1 Titration
5.5.2 Chromatic Methods
5.5.2.1 Gas Chromatography
5.5.2.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
5.5.3 Spectroscopic Methods
5.5.3.1 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
5.5.3.2 Infrared Spectroscopy
5.5.4 Rancimat Method
5.5.5 Viscometry
5.6 Conclusion
References
6. Commercial Technologies for Biodiesel Production
Abbreviation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Biodiesel Production
6.3 Technologies Used for Biodiesel Production
6.3.1 Chemical Reaction (Transesterification)
6.3.2 Thermochemical Conversion
6.3.3 Biomechanical Conversion
6.3.4 Direct Combustion
6.4 Other Technologies in Use for Biodiesel Production
6.5 Feedstock Requirement
6.6 Some Problems Facing Commercialization of Biodiesel in Africa
6.7 Case Studies/Current Status and Future Potential
6.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
7. A Global Scenario of Sustainable Technologies and Progress in a Biodiesel Production
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Current Status of Feedstock for Biodiesel Production Technology
7.3 Scenario of Biodiesel in Combustion Engine
7.4 Biodiesel Production Technologies
7.4.1 Direct Blending
7.4.2 Pyrolysis
7.4.3 Microemulsification
7.4.4 Transesterification
7.5 Microwave-Mediated Transesterification
7.6 Ultrasound-Mediated Transesterification
7.7 Catalysis in Biodiesel Production
7.7.1 Homogeneous Catalysts
7.7.2 Heterogeneous Catalysts
7.7.3 Heterogeneous Nanocatalysts
7.7.4 Supercritical Fluids
7.7.5 Biocatalysts
7.8 The Concept of Biorefinery
7.9 Summary and Outlook
7.10 Conclusion
References
8. Biodiesel Production Technologies
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Biodiesel Feedstocks
8.2.1 Selection of Feedstocks
8.3 Biodiesel Production Technologies
8.3.1 Pyrolysis
8.3.2 Dilution
8.3.3 Micro-Emulsion
8.3.4 Transesterification
8.3.4.1 Homogeneously Catalyzed Transesterification Processes
8.3.4.1.1 Alkaline Catalyst
8.3.4.1.2 Acidic Catalyst
8.3.4.1.3 Two-Step Process
8.3.4.2 Heterogeneously Catalyzed Transesterification Processes
8.3.4.3 Enzymatic Catalyzed Transesterification Processes
8.4 Intensification Techniques for Biodiesel Production
8.4.1 Supercritical Alcohol Method
8.4.2 Microwave Heating
8.4.3 Ultrasonic Irradiation
8.4.4 Co-Solvent Method
8.5 Other Techniques of Biodiesel Production
References
9. Methods for Biodiesel Production
9.1 Selection of Feedstock for Biodiesel
9.1.1 First-Generation Feedstock
9.1.2 Second-Generation Feedstock
9.1.3 Third-Generation Feedstock
9.2 Methods for Biodiesel Production
9.2.1 Dilution With Hydrocarbons Blending
9.2.2 Micro-Emulsion
9.2.3 Pyrolysis (Thermal Cracking)
9.2.4 Transesterification (Alcoholysis)
9.2.4.1 In Situ Transesterification (Reactive Extraction)
9.2.4.2 Conventional Transesterification
9.2.4.2.1 Catalytic-Based Process. 9.2.4.2.1.1 HOMOGENEOUS-ACID-CATALYZED-ESTERIFICATION (PRE-TRANSESTERIFICATION TREATMENT)
9.2.4.2.1.2 HOMOGENEOUS ALKALINE-CATALYZED TRANSESTERIFICATION
9.2.4.2.1.3 HETEROGENEOUS-CATALYZED TRANSESTERIFICATION
9.2.4.2.1.4 ENZYMATIC-CATALYZED TRANSESTERIFICATION
9.2.4.2.2 Non-Catalytic-Based Process
9.2.4.2.2.1 SUPERCRITICAL ALCOHOL PROCESS
9.2.4.2.2.2 BIOX CO-SOLVENT PROCESS
9.2.4.3 Microwave/Ultrasound-Assisted Transesterification
9.2.4.4 Variables Affecting Transesterification Reaction
References
10. Non-Edible Feedstock for Biodiesel Production
List of Abbreviations
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Reports Relevant to Global Warming and Renewable Energy
10.3 Biofuels as an Alternative Energy Source
10.3.1 First-Generation Biofuels
10.3.2 Second-Generation Biofuels
10.3.3 Third-Generation Biofuels
10.4 Benefits of Using Biodiesel
10.5 Technologies of Biodiesel Production From Non-Edible Feedstock
10.6 Biodiesel Production by Transesterification
10.7 Non-Edible Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production
10.7.1 Non-Edible Vegetable Oils
10.7.2 Waste Cooking Oil
10.7.3 Algal Oil
10.7.4 Waste Animal Fat/Oil
10.8 Fuel Properties of Biodiesel Obtained From Non-Edible Feedstock
10.9 Advantages of Non-Edible Feedstocks
10.10 Economic Importance of Biodiesel Production
10.11 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
11. Oleochemical Resources for Biodiesel Production
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Definition of Oleochemicals
11.3 Oleochemical Types
11.4 Production of Biodiesel
11.5 Types of Feedstocks. 11.5.1 Non-Edible Feedstocks
11.5.2 Non-Edible Vegetable Oil
11.5.3 Tall Oil
11.5.4 Waste Cooking Oils
11.5.5 Animal Fats
11.5.6 Chicken Fat
11.5.7 Lard
11.5.8 Tallow
11.5.9 Leather Industry Solid Waste Fat
11.5.10 Fish Oil
11.6 Uses of Oleochemicals. 11.6.1 Polymer Applications
11.6.2 Application of Plant Oil as a Substitute for Petro-Diesel
11.6.3 Used as Surfactants
11.6.4 Oleochemicals Used in Pesticide
11.6.5 Oleochemicals Used in Spray Adjuvants and Solvents
11.7 Methyl Ester or Biodiesel Production
11.7.1 Palm Oil
11.7.2 Sunflower Oil
11.7.3 ME From AFW
11.8 Parameters Affecting the Yield of Biodiesel. 11.8.1 Reaction Conditions
11.8.2 Catalyst. 11.8.2.1 Alkali Catalyst
11.8.2.2 Acid Catalyst
11.8.2.3 Biocatalyst
11.8.2.4 Heterogeneous Catalyst
11.8.2.5 ME Conversion by Supercritical Method
11.8.3 Properties of Feedstock
11.8.3.1 Composition of FA
11.8.3.2 FFA
11.8.3.3 Heat
11.8.3.4 Presence of Unwanted Materials
11.8.3.5 Titer
11.8.4 Characteristic of Feedstock
11.9 Optimization of Reactions Conditions for High Yield and Quality of Biodiesel. 11.9.1 Pre-Treatment of Feedstock. 11.9.1.1 Elimination of Water
11.9.1.2 Elimination of Insoluble Impurities
11.9.1.3 Elimination of Unsaponifiables
11.9.2 Characterization and Selection of Feedstocks
11.9.3 Selection of Reaction Conditions
11.10 Oil Recovery. 11.10.1 Alkaline Flooding Method
11.10.2 Additives
11.11 Quality Improvement of Biodiesel
11.11.1 Additives for Improving Combustion Ability
11.11.2 Additives for Enhancing the Octane Number
11.11.3 Additives for Improving the Stability
11.11.4 Additives to Enhance Cold Flow Property
11.11.5 Additives to Enhance Lubricity
11.11.6 Additives to Enhance Cetane Number
11.12 Conclusion
Abbreviations
References
12. Overview on Different Reactors for Biodiesel Production
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Biodiesel Production Reactors
12.2.1 Batch Reactor
12.2.2 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
12.2.3 Fixed Bed Reactor
12.2.4 Bubble Column Reactor
12.2.5 Reactive Distillation Column
12.2.6 Hybrid Catalytic Plasma Reactor
12.2.7 Microreactors Technology
12.2.8 Oscillatory Flow Reactors
12.2.9 Other Novel Reactors
12.3 Future Prospects
12.4 Conclusion
References
13. Patents on Biodiesel
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Generation of Biodiesel
13.3 Development of Catalyst
13.3.1 Homogeneous Catalyst
13.3.2 Heterogeneous Catalyst
13.4 Method Producing Biodiesel
13.4.1 Pre-Treatment Process
13.4.2 Direct Use and Blending of Oils
13.4.3 Esterification of FFA
13.4.4 Transesterification of TAG
13.4.5 Pyrolysis
13.5 Reactor’s Technology for Biodiesel Production
13.5.1 Continuous Stirred Tank Reactor
13.5.2 Fixed Bed Reactor
13.5.3 Micro-Mixer Reactor
13.6 Conclusion
References
14. Reactions of Carboxylic Acids With an Alcohol Over Acid Materials
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Zeolites
14.3 SO3H as Catalyst
14.4 Metal Oxides
14.5 Heteropolyacids
14.6 Other Materials
14.7 Conclusions
References
15. Biodiesel Production From Non-Edible and Waste Lipid Sources
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Non-Edible Plant-Based Oils. 15.2.1 Jatropha curcas
15.2.2 Calophyllum inophyllum
15.2.3 Mesua ferrea
15.2.4 Jojoba Oil
15.2.5 Azadirachta indica
15.2.6 Rubber Seed Oil
15.2.7 Ricinus communis as Feedstock (Castor Oil)
15.2.8 Other Non-Edible Oils
15.3 Waste Animal Fats
15.4 Expired and Waste Cooking Oils
15.5 Algae/Microalgae
15.6 Insects as Biodiesel Feedstock
15.7 Deacidification
15.8 Other Technologies
15.9 Conclusion
References
16. Microalgae for Biodiesel Production
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Physicochemical Properties of Biodiesel From Microalgae
16.3 Genetic Engineering/Techniques Enhancing Biodiesel Production
16.4 Nanotechnology in Microalgae Biodiesel Production
16.5 Specific Examples of Biodiesel Production From Microalgae
16.6 Methodology Involved in the Extraction of Algae
16.6.1 Chemical Solvents Extraction
16.6.2 Extraction by Supercritical Carbon Dioxide
16.6.3 Extraction Using Biochemical Techniques
16.6.4 Extraction Involving Direct Transesterification
16.6.5 Extraction Using Transesterification Techniques
16.7 Conclusion and Future Recommendation to Knowledge
References
17. Biodiesel Production Methods and Feedstocks
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Biofuel Classification in Terms of Origin and Technological Conversion of Raw Materials
17.3 Techniques Capable of Producing Biodiesel on Commercial Scales
17.3.1 Direct and Blending Methods With the Aim of Biodiesel Generation
17.3.2 Microemulsion Methods
17.3.3 Pyrolysis Methods
17.3.4 Transesterification Methods
17.4 Influential Parameters on Biodiesel Production
17.4.1 The Choice of Transesterification Catalysts
17.4.2 Effects of Catalyst Characteristics on Biodiesel Production Efficiency
17.5 Biodiesel Markets and Economic Considerations
17.6 Challenges Confronting Biodiesel Uptake
17.7 Corrosion and Quality Monitoring Issues for Biodiesel
17.8 Conclusions
References
18. Application of Nanoparticles for the Enhanced Production of Biodiesel
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Solid Nanoparticles
18.3 Nanobioparticles/Nanobiocatalyst
18.4 Magnetic Nanoparticles
18.5 How Nanoparticles Enhanced Biodiesel Production?
18.6 Conclusion
References
Index
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