Оглавление
Группа авторов. Environmental and Agricultural Microbiology
Table of Contents
Guide
List of Illustrations
List of Tables
Pages
Environmental and Agricultural Microbiology. Applications for Sustainability
Preface
1. A Recent Perspective on Bioremediation of Agrochemicals by Microalgae: Aspects and Strategies
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Pollution Due to Pesticides
1.2.1 Acute Effects
1.2.2 Chronic Effects
1.3 Microalgal Species Involved in Bioremediation of Pesticides
1.4 Strategies for Phycoremediation of Pesticides. 1.4.1 Involvement of Enzymes in Phycoremediation of Pesticides
1.4.2 Use of Genetically Engineered Microalgae
1.5 Molecular Aspects of Pesticide Biodegradation by Microalgae
1.6 Factor Affecting Phycoremediation of Pesticides
1.6.1 Biological Factor
1.6.2 Chemical Factor
1.6.3 Environment Factor
1.7 Benefit and Shortcomings of Phycoremediation
1.7.1 Benefits
1.7.2 Shortcomings
1.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects
References
2. Microalgal Bioremediation of Toxic Hexavalent Chromium: A Review
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Chromium Cycle
2.2 Effects of Hexavalent Chromium Toxicity. 2.2.1 Toxicity to Microorganisms
2.2.2 Toxicity to Plant Body
2.2.3 Toxicity to Animals
2.3 Chromium Bioremediation by Microalgae
2.3.1 Cyanobacteria
2.3.2 Green Algae
2.3.3 Diatoms
2.4 Mechanism Involved in Hexavalent Chromium Reduction in Microalgae
2.5 Conclusion
References
3. Biodetoxification of Heavy Metals Using Biofilm Bacteria
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Source and Toxicity of Heavy Metal Pollution
3.2.1 Non-Essential Heavy Metals
3.2.1.1 Arsenic
3.2.1.2 Cadmium
3.2.1.3 Chromium
3.2.1.4 Lead
3.2.1.5 Mercury
3.2.2 Essential Heavy Metals
3.2.2.1 Copper
3.2.2.2 Zinc
3.2.2.3 Nickel
3.3 Biofilm Bacteria
3.4 Interaction of Metal and Biofilm Bacteria
3.5 Biodetoxification Mechanisms
3.5.1 Biosorption
3.5.2 Bioleaching
3.5.3 Biovolatilization
3.5.4 Bioimmobilization
3.6 Conclusion
References
4. Microbial-Derived Polymers and Their Degradability Behavior for Future Prospects
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Polyamides
4.2.1 Bioavailability and Production
4.2.2 Biodegradability of Polyamides
4.2.3 Degradation of Nylon 4 Under the Soil
4.2.4 Fungal Degradation of Nylon 6 and Nylon 66 (Synthetic Polyamide)
4.2.5 Itaconic Acid-Based Heterocyclic Polyamide
4.2.6 Summary and Future Development
4.3 Polylactic Acid
4.3.1 Availability and Production
4.3.2 Polymerization Method
4.3.3 Biodegradability of Polylactic Acid
4.3.4 Copolymerization Method
4.3.5 Blending Method
4.3.6 Nanocomposite Formation
4.3.7 Summary
4.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
4.4.1 Biosynthesis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
4.4.2 Application of PHAs
4.4.3 Biodegradability of PHAs
4.4.4 Degradability Methods
4.4.5 Summary
4.5 Conclusion and Future Development
References
5. A Review on PHAs: The Future Biopolymer
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Green Plastic: Biodegradable Polymer Used as Plastic
5.3 Difference Between Biopolymer and Bioplastic
5.4 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
5.5 Polyhydroxyalkanoates and Its Applications
5.6 Microorganisms Producing PHAs
5.7 Advantages
5.8 Conclusion and Future Prospective
References
6. Polyhydroxybutyrate as an Eco-Friendly Alternative of Synthetic Plastics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Bioplastics
6.4 Classification of Biodegradable Polymers
6.5 PHB-Producing Bacteria
6.6 Methods for Detecting PHB Granules
6.7 Biochemical Pathway for Synthesis of PHB
6.8 Production of PHB
6.8.1 Process Optimization for PHB Production
6.8.2 Optimization of PHB Production by One Variable at a Time Approach
6.8.3 Statistical Approaches for PHB Optimization
6.9 Production of PHB Using Genetically Modified Organisms
6.10 Characterization of PHB
6.11 Various Biochemical Techniques Used for PHB Characterization
6.11.1 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
6.11.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry
6.11.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis
6.11.4 X-Ray Powder Diffraction (XRD)
6.11.5 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
6.11.6 Microscopic Techniques
6.11.7 Elemental Analysis
6.11.8 Polarimetry
6.11.9 Molecular Size Analysis
6.12 Biodegradation of PHB
6.13 Application Spectrum of PHB
6.14 Conclusion
6.15 Future Perspectives
Acknowledgements
References
7. Microbial Synthesis of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and Their Applications
Abbreviations
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Conventional Plastics and Its Issues in Utility
7.2.1 Synthetic Plastic and Its Accumulation or Degradation Impacts
7.3 Bioplastics
7.3.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates
7.3.1.1 Microorganisms in the Production of PHAs. 7.3.1.1.1 Rhodospirillum rubrum
7.3.1.1.2 Escherichia coli
7.3.1.1.3 Pseudomonas Species
7.3.1.1.4 Stain A. quitalea Species USM4
7.3.1.1.5 Strain Natrinema altunense RM-10
7.4 Fermentation for PHAs Production
7.5 Downstream Process for PHAs
7.6 Conclusions
References
8. Polyhydroxyalkanoates for Sustainable Smart Packaging of Fruits
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Physiological Changes of Fresh Fruits During Ripening and Minimal Processing
8.3 Smart Packaging
8.4 Biodegradable Polymers for Fruit Packaging
8.5 Legal Aspects of Smart Packaging
8.6 Pros and Cons of Smart Packaging Using PHAs
8.7 Conclusion
References
9. Biosurfactants Production and Their Commercial Importance
Abbreviations
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Chemical Surfactant Compounds
9.2.1 Biosurfactant Compounds
9.3 Properties of Biosurfactant Compound. 9.3.1 Activities of Surface and Interface Location
9.3.2 Temperature and pH Tolerance
9.3.3 Biodegradability
9.3.4 Low Toxicity
9.3.5 Emulsion Forming and Breaking
9.4 Production of Biosurfactant by Microbial Fermentation
9.4.1 Factors Influencing the Production of Biosurfactants
9.4.1.1 Environmental Conditions
9.4.1.2 Carbon Substrates
9.4.1.3 Estimation of Biosurfactants Activity
9.5 Advantages, Microorganisms Involved, and Applications of Biosurfactants. 9.5.1 Advantages of Using Biosurfactants
9.5.1.1 Easy Raw Materials for Biosurfactant Biosynthesis
9.5.1.2 Low Toxic Levels for Environment
9.5.1.3 Best Operation With Surface and Interface Activity
9.5.1.4 Good Biodegradability
9.5.1.5 Physical Variables
9.5.2 Microbial Sources
9.5.3 Production of Biosurfactants
9.5.3.1 Production of Rhamnolipids
9.5.3.2 Regulation of Rhamnolipids Synthesis
9.5.3.3 Commercial Use of Biosurfactants. 9.5.3.3.1 Food Industries
9.5.3.3.2 Bioremediation
9.5.3.3.3 Removal of Oil and Petroleum
9.5.3.3.4 Agricultural Use of Biosurfactants
9.6 Conclusions
References
10. Functional Soil Microbes: An Approach Toward Sustainable Horticulture
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Rhizosphere Microbial Diversity
10.3 Plant Growth–Promoting Rhizobacteria
10.3.1 Nitrogen Fixation
10.3.2 Production of Phytohormones
10.3.3 Production of Enzymes That can Transform Crop Growth
10.3.4 Microbial Antagonism
10.3.5 Solubilization of Minerals
10.3.6 Siderophore and Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) Production
10.3.7 Cyanide (HCN) Production
10.3.8 Plant Growth–Promoting Rhizobacteria on Growth of Horticultural Crops
10.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
11. Rhizosphere Microbiome: The Next-Generation Crop Improvement Strategy
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Rhizosphere Engineering
11.3 Omics Tools to Study Rhizosphere Metagenome
11.3.1 Metagenomics
11.3.2 Metaproteomics
11.3.3 Metatranscriptomics
11.3.4 Ionomics
11.4 As Next-Generation Crop Improvement Strategy
11.5 Conclusion
References
12. Methane Emission and Strategies for Mitigation in Livestock
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Contribution of Methane from Livestock
12.3 Methanogens
12.3.1 Rumen Microbial Community
12.3.2 Methanogens Found in Rumen
12.3.3 Enrichment of Methanogens from Rumen Liquor
12.3.4 Screening for Methane Production
12.3.5 Isolation of Methanogens
12.3.6 Molecular Characterization
12.4 Methanogenesis: Methane Production
12.4.1 Pathways of Methanogenesis
12.4.2 Pathway of CO2 Reduction
12.4.3 CO2 Reduction to Formyl-Methanofuran
12.4.4 Conversion of the Formyl Group from Formyl-Methanofuran to Formyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin
12.4.5 Formation of Methenyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin
12.4.6 Reduction of Methenyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin to Methyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin
12.4.7 Reduction of Methyl-Tetrahydromethanopterin to Methyl-S-Coenzyme M
12.4.8 Reduction of Methyl-S-Coenzyme M to CH4
12.5 Strategies for Mitigation of Methane Emission
12.5.1 Dietary Manipulation. 12.5.1.1 Increasing Dry Matter Intake
12.5.1.2 Increasing Ration Concentrate Fraction
12.5.1.3 Supplementation of Lipid
12.5.1.4 Protozoa Removal
12.5.2 Feed Additives. 12.5.2.1 Ionophore Compounds
12.5.2.2 Halogenated Methane Compound
12.5.2.3 Organic Acid
12.5.3 Microbial Feed Additives
12.5.3.1 Vaccination
12.5.3.2 Bacteriophages and Bacteriocins
12.5.4 Animal Breeding and Selection
12.6 Conclusion
References
13. Liquid Biofertilizers and Their Applications: An Overview
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Chemical Fertilizer and its Harmful Effect
13.2 Biofertilizers “Boon for Mankind”
13.3 Carrier-Based Biofertilizers
13.3.1 Solid Carrier-Based Biofertilizers
13.3.2 Liquid Biofertilizer
13.4 Sterilization of the Carrier
13.5 Merits of Using Liquid Biofertilizer Over Solid Carrier-Based Biofertilizer
13.6 Types of Liquid Biofertilizer
13.7 Production of Liquid Biofertilizers
13.7.1 Isolation of the Microorganism
13.7.2 Preparation of Medium and Growth Condition
13.7.3 Culture and Preservation
13.7.4 Preparation of Liquid Culture
13.7.5 Fermentation and Mass Production
13.7.6 Formulation of the Liquid Biofertilizers
13.8 Applications of Biofertilizers
13.9 Conclusion
References
14. Extremozymes: Biocatalysts From Extremophilic Microorganisms and Their Relevance in Current Biotechnology
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Extremophiles: The Source of Novel Enzymes
14.2.1 Thermophilic Extremozymes
14.2.2 Psychrophilic Extremozymes
14.2.3 Halophilic Extremozymes
14.2.4 Alkaliphilic/Acidiophilic Extremozymes
14.2.5 Piezophilic Extremozymes
14.3 The Potential Application of Extremozymes in Biotechnology
14.4 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
15. Microbial Chitinases and Their Applications: An Overview
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Chitinases and Its Types
15.3 Sources of Microbial Chitinase
15.3.1 Bacterial Chitinases
15.3.2 Fungal Chitinases
15.3.3 Actinobacteria
15.3.4 Viruses/Others
15.4 Genetics of Microbial Chitinase
15.5 Biotechnological Advances in Microbial Chitinase Production
15.5.1 Media Components
15.5.2 Physical Parameters
15.5.3 Modes and Methods of Fermentation
15.5.4 Advances Biotechnological Methods
15.6 Applications of Microbial Chitinases
15.6.1 Agricultural. 15.6.1.1 Biopesticides
15.6.1.2 Biocontrol
15.6.2 Biomedical
15.6.3 Pharmaceutical
15.6.4 Industrial
15.6.5 Environmental
15.6.5.1 Waste Management
15.6.6 Others
15.7 Conclusion
References
16. Lithobiontic Ecology: Stone Encrusting Microbes and their Environment
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Diversity of Lithobionts and Its Ecological Niche
16.2.1 Epiliths
16.2.2 Endoliths
16.2.3 Hypoliths
16.3 Colonization Strategies of Lithobionts
16.3.1 Temperature
16.3.2 Water Availability
16.3.3 Light Availability
16.4 Geography of Lithobbiontic Coatings. 16.4.1 Bacteria
16.4.2 Cyanobacteria
16.4.3 Fungi
16.4.4 Algae
16.4.5 Lichens
16.5 Impacts of Lithobiontic Coatings. 16.5.1 On Organic Remains
16.5.2 On Rock Weathering
16.5.3 On Rock Coatings
16.6 Role of Lithobionts in Harsh Environments
16.7 Conclusion
References
17. Microbial Intervention in Sustainable Production of Biofuels and Other Bioenergy Products
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Biomass
17.3 Biofuel
17.3.1 Biodiesel
17.3.1.1 Microalgae in Biodiesel Production
17.3.1.2 Oleaginous Yeasts in Biodiesel Production
17.3.1.3 Oleaginous Fungi in Biodiesel Production
17.3.1.4 Bacteria in Biodiesel Production
17.3.2 Bioalcohol
17.3.2.1 Bioethanol
17.3.2.2 Biobutanol
17.3.3 Biogas
17.3.4 Biohydrogen
17.4 Other Bioenergy Products. 17.4.1 Microbial Fuel Cells
17.4.1.1 Microbes Used in MFCs
17.4.1.2 Future Aspects of Microbial Fuel Cells
17.4.2 Microbial Nanowires in Bioenergy Application
17.4.2.1 Pili
17.4.2.2 Outer Membranes and Extended Periplasmic Space
17.4.2.3 Unknown Type—MNWs Whose Identity to be Confirmed
17.4.3 Microbial Nanowires in Bioenergy Production
17.5 Conclusion
References
18. Role of Microbes and Microbial Consortium in Solid Waste Management
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Types of Solid Waste
18.2.1 Domestic Wastes
18.2.2 Institutional and Commercial Wastes
18.2.3 Wastes From Street Cleansing
18.2.4 Industrial Wastes
18.2.5 Nuclear Wastes
18.2.6 Agricultural Wastes
18.3 Waste Management in India
18.4 Solid Waste Management. 18.4.1 Municipal Solid Waste Management
18.5 Solid Waste Management Techniques
18.5.1 Incineration
18.5.2 Pyrolysis and Gasification
18.5.3 Landfilling
18.5.4 Aerobic Composting
18.5.5 Vermicomposting
18.5.6 Anaerobic Digestion
18.5.6.1 Enzymatic Hydrolysis
18.5.6.2 Fermentation
18.5.6.3 Acetogenesis
18.5.6.4 Methanogenesis
18.5.7 Bioethanol From Various Solid Wastes
18.6 Conclusion
References
Index
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