Оглавление
Группа авторов. Wetland Carbon and Environmental Management
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Geophysical Monograph Series
Geophysical Monograph 267. Wetland Carbon and Environmental Management
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
FOREWORD
PREFACE
REFERENCES
1 A Review of Global Wetland Carbon Stocks and Management Challenges
ABSTRACT
1.1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1.1. Wetlands in the Global Carbon Cycle
1.1.2. Wetland Definitions
1.1.3. Overview of Chapter
1.2. PAST CHANGES IN WETLAND CARBON STOCKS. 1.2.1. Holocene Timescale
Historic Time Period
1.3. METHODOLOGIES. 1.3.1. Field Sampling of Wetland Carbon Stocks
1.3.2. Remote Sensing
1.3.3. Ecosystem Modeling
1.4. ESTIMATES OF WETLAND STOCKS BY WETLAND TYPES. 1.4.1. Mangroves
1.4.2. Tidal Salt Marshes
1.4.3. Tropical Peatlands
1.4.4. High‐Latitude Wetlands
1.4.5. Temperate Wetlands
1.5. GLOBAL SUMMARY OF WETLAND CARBON STOCKS
1.6. FUTURE CHANGES IN WETLAND CARBON STOCKS
1.7. UNCERTAINTIES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
2 Wetland Carbon in the United States: Conditions and Changes
ABSTRACT
2.1. INTRODUCTION
2.2. WETLAND DISTRIBUTION, TYPES, AND CARBON STOCK IN THE UNITED STATES
2.3. EFFECTS OF LAND USE CHANGE IN RECENT DECADES ON WETLAND CARBON
2.4. IMPACT OF WILDFIRE ON WETLAND CARBON
2.5. U.S. WETLAND MANAGEMENT AS A CARBON‐RELEVANT LANDCOVER CHANGE
2.6. OUTLOOK AND FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS
REFERENCES
3 Biogeochemistry of Wetland Carbon Preservation and Flux
ABSTRACT
3.1. INTRODUCTION
3.2. RADIATIVE BALANCES AND RADIATIVE FORCING
3.3. FACTORS CONTROLLING CARBON PRESERVATION
3.3.1. Carbon Inputs
Autochthonous Production
Allochthonous Inputs
3.3.2. Mechanisms For Carbon Preservation
Redox Environment
Anaerobic metabolism
Decomposer communities
Organic Matter Characteristics
Carbon quality
Nutrient availability
Physicochemical Inhibition of Decomposition
Phenolic inhibition
Physical protection
pH
Temperature
3.4. GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS AND OTHER LOSSES
3.4.1. Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
Emission Pathways
3.4.2. Export of Dissolved Organic and Inorganic Carbon
Dissolved Organic Carbon
Dissolved Inorganic Carbon and Methane
3.4.3. Erosion and Losses of Particulate Carbon
3.5. MANAGEMENT OF WETLAND CARBON PRESERVATION AND FLUX
3.5.1. Managing the Redox Environment
3.5.2. Managing Organic Matter Characteristics
3.5.3. Managing Physicochemical Inhibition
3.5.4. Managing Greenhouse Gas Emissions
3.5.5. Managing Dissolved Organic Carbon Export
3.6. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
4 An Overview of the History and Breadth of Wetland Management Practices
ABSTRACT
4.1. INTRODUCTION
4.2. DEVELOPMENT OF WETLAND MANAGEMENT
4.3. MANAGEMENT REQUIRES PROTECTION
4.4. WETLAND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
4.4.1. Sustainably Harvesting Wetland Flora and/or Fauna
4.4.2. Retaining or Restoring the Sustainable Harvest of Wetland Flora or Fauna with Agricultural Practices that are No Longer Economically Viable
4.4.3. Prescribed Fire
4.4.4. Minimizing Wetland Ditching and Offsite Dredging
4.4.5. Managing Surface Water within Wetlands
4.4.6. Managing Estuarine Gradients
4.4.7. Constructing Wetlands to Treat Wastewater
4.4.8. Using Dredged Material to Create Wetlands to Provide General Wetland Functions
4.4.9. Ceasing Forced Drainage of Subsided, Former Wetlands to Restore Function
4.4.10. Ceasing Permanent Flooding to Restore Function
4.4.11. Using Tidal or Riverine Energy Recreate Wetlands
4.4.12. Excavating Uplands to Create Wetlands
4.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
5 Carbon Flux, Storage, and Wildlife Co‐Benefits in a Restoring Estuary: Case Study at the Nisqually River Delta, Washington
ABSTRACT
5.1. INTRODUCTION. 5.1.1. Tidal Marshes as Blue Carbon Ecosystems
5.1.2. Tidal Marsh Co‐Benefits to Wildlife
5.1.3. Tidal Marsh Restoration and Management
5.1.4. Study Framework
5.2. METHODS. 5.2.1. Study Area
5.2.2. Greenhouse Gas Exchange
Greenhouse gas exchange equipment and analyses
5.2.3. Carbon Sources Within Salmon Food Webs
Salmon food web analyses
5.3. RESULTS. 5.3.1. Greenhouse Gas Exchange
5.3.2. Carbon Sources Within Salmon Food Webs
5.4. DISCUSSION
5.4.1. Comparing Ecosystem Functions of Restoring and Reference Tidal Marshes
5.4.2. Restoration Connectivity
5.4.3. Estuarine Habitat Change
5.5. IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
5.6. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
6 Enhancing Carbon Storage in Mangrove Ecosystems of China through Sustainable Restoration and Aquaculture Actions
ABSTRACT
6.1. INTRODUCTION. 6.1.1. Mangrove ecosystem services
6.1.2. Historical land use changes and mangrove status in China
6.1.3. Management application
6.2. METHODS. 6.2.1. Study sites
6.2.2. Eco‐farm systems and mangrove. Eco‐farm system designs
Eco‐farm setting and mangrove restoration
6.2.3. Field Sampling. Forest structure and carbon storage
Soil parameters
6.2.4. Mapping of current mangrove area and traditional ponds in the Pearl Bay
6.2.5. Statistical analysis
6.3. RESULTS. 6.3.1. Forest structure
6.3.2. Soil substrate and nutrient content
6.3.3. Carbon stock of vegetation and soil in the two forest types
6.3.4. Upscaling carbon stock gained and livelihood increases under the eco‐farm restoration design
6.4. DISCUSSION
6.4.1. Biomass C stock with the development of forest structure and biomass
6.4.2. Forest type and nutrient inputs synergistically affect soil C stocks
6.4.3. Management application: sustainable restoration balancing C gain and economic development
6.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
7 Potential for Carbon and Nitrogen Sequestration by Restoring Tidal Connectivity and Enhancing Soil Surface Elevations in Denuded and Degraded South Florida Mangrove Ecosystems
ABSTRACT
7.1. INTRODUCTION
7.2. METHODS. 7.2.1. Study site and experimental design
7.2.2. Soil sampling
7.2.3. Soil surface elevation change and vertical accretion measurements
7.2.4. Determining gains in surface C and N sequestration
7.2.5. Statistical analysis
7.3. RESULTS. 7.3.1. Composition of surface soils
7.3.2. Surface elevation change, vertical accretion, and sub‐surface change
7.3.3. Surface soil C and N sequestration
7.3.4. Determining the influence of management intervention on soil C and N sequestration
7.4. DISCUSSION. 7.4.1. Surface elevation change, vertical accretion, and sub‐surface change
7.4.2. Surface soil C and N sequestration
7.4.3. Potential influence of management action on soil C sequestration
7.5. MANAGEMENT APPLICATION
7.5.1. Framework for Managers
7.6. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
DATA AVAILABILITY
REFERENCES
8 Optimizing Carbon Stocks and Sedimentation in Indonesian Mangroves under Different Management Regimes
ABSTRACT
8.1. INTRODUCTION. 8.1.1. Background
8.1.2. Mangrove management regimes in Indonesia
8.2. ASSESSING MANGROVE PROPERTIES. 8.2.1. Study sites
8.2.2. Carbon stock measurements
8.2.3. Sediment accretion and carbon burial
8.3. MANGROVE MANAGEMENT AND CARBON DYNAMICS. 8.3.1. Carbon stock variability under different management approaches
8.3.2. Sedimentation and carbon burial
8.4. DISCUSSION. 8.4.1. Nature‐based climate solutions
8.4.2. Land‐use and hydrogeomorphology
8.4.3. Implications for coastal livelihoods
8.5. MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
9 Hydrological Rehabilitation and Sediment Elevation as Strategies to Restore Mangroves in Terrigenous and Calcareous Environments in Mexico
ABSTRACT
9.1. INTRODUCTION. 9.1.1. Mangrove Area and Carbon (C) Stock in Terrigenous and Calcareous Sediments
9.1.2 Potential for the Restoration of Impaired Mangroves
9.1.3. Aims and Objectives
9.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS. 9.2.1. Study Sites
9.2.2. Experimental Design
9.2.3. Measurements. Hydrological Attributes
Soil Biogeochemical Attributes and Belowground Carbon
Vegetation Structure and Aboveground Carbon
9.2.4. Statistical Analyses
9.3. RESULTS. 9.3.1. Hydrological Attributes
9.3.2. Soil Biogeochemical Attributes and Belowground Carbon
9.3.3. Vegetation Structure and Aboveground Corg
9.3.4. Aboveground Root and Soil Corg in Tampamachoco and Isla Del Carmen
9.4. DISCUSSION
9.4.1. Hydroperiod and Biogeochemical Porewater Parameters as Indicators of Mangrove Degradation (Tampamachoco) or Recovery (Isla del Carmen)
9.4.2. Carbon Losses Due to Degradation Versus Carbon Gains Due to Restoration
9.4.3. Management Applications
9.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
10 Controlling Factors of Long‐Term Carbon Sequestration in the Coastal Wetland Sediments of the Modern Yellow River Delta Area, China: Links to Land Management
ABSTRACT
10.1. INTRODUCTION
10.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS. 10.2.1. Site Description
10.2.2. Sampling and Measurements
10.2.3. Statistical analysis
10.3. RESULTS. 10.3.1. Dating Results
10.3.2. Description of Each Sedimentary System
Riverine wetland (U0)
Tidal Wetland (U1)
Ancient tidal wetlands (U1‐1)
Modern tidal wetlands (U1‐2)
Marine Aquatic Systems (U2)
Neritic‐sea aquatic system (U2‐1)
Pro‐delta aquatic system (U2‐2)
Shallow marine wetlands (U3)
Delta‐front wetland (U3‐1)
Interdistributary bay wetland (U3‐2)
Upper delta plain wetland (U4)
10.3.3. Sediment characters and the rate of carbon sequestration
10.3.4. Relationships between carbon accumulation rates and impact factors
10.4. DISCUSSION. 10.4.1. Factors that control long‐term sediment carbon sequestration in the MYRD
Geological processes
Sea‐level change, climate change, and human activities
10.4.2. Implications: links to land management
10.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
11 The Impacts of Aquaculture Activities on Greenhouse Gas Dynamics in the Subtropical Estuarine Zones of China
ABSTRACT
11.1. INTRODUCTION
11.2. METHODS. 11.2.1. Study Site Description
11.2.2. Aquaculture Pond System and Management
11.2.3. Experimental Design
11.2.4. Measurement of Gas Fluxes
11.2.5. Measurement of Ancillary Variables
11.2.6. Statistical Analysis
11.3. RESULTS. 11.3.1. Effects of Wetland Reclamation to Shrimp Ponds on Gas Fluxes
11.3.2. Variations of Gas Fluxes Among Different Estuaries and Shrimp Culture Stages
11.3.3. Effects of Feeding and Aeration on Gas Fluxes During the Culture Period
11.3.4. Effects of Drainage on Gas Fluxes During the Non‐culture Period
11.4. DISCUSSION. 11.4.1. Effects of Wetland Reclamation on Greenhouse Gas Fluxes
11.4.2. Management Application
11.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
12 Soil and Aboveground Carbon Stocks in a Planted Tropical Mangrove Forest (Can Gio, Vietnam)
ABSTRACT
12.1. INTRODUCTION
12.2. METHODS. 12.2.1. Study Area
12.2.2. Field measurements and Carbon Stocks Determination. Study Design
Elevation
Aboveground Carbon Stocks
Core Collection and Soil Physicochemical Parameter Measurements
Soil Samples Preparation
Soil TOC, TN, δ13C, and Soil Carbon Stocks
12.2.3. Statistical Analyses
12.3. RESULTS. 12.3.1. Can Gio Mangrove Distribution
12.3.2. Soil Physicochemical Parameters (Pore‐Water Salinity, Eh, and pH)
12.3.3. Soil Organic Matter Characteristics (TOC, C/N, δ13C) and BD
12.3.4. Carbon Stocks in the Aboveground Biomass and in the Soils of the Different Stands
12.4. DISCUSSION. 12.4.1. Mangrove Zonation in Can Gio
12.4.2. Effects of Mangrove on Soil Characteristics
12.4.3. Characterization of Soil Organic Matter With Depth and Along the Intertidal Elevation Gradient
12.4.4. Influence of Mangrove Plantation and Management on Ecosystem C Stocks
12.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
13 Carbon Flux Trajectories and Site Conditions from Restored Impounded Marshes in the Sacramento‐San Joaquin Delta
ABSTRACT
13.1. INTRODUCTION. 13.1.1. General Introduction
13.1.2. Historical Land Use
13.1.3. Restoration Design for Carbon Sequestration
13.2. METHODS. 13.2.1. Study Site Description
13.2.2. Experimental Design
13.2.3. Flux Measurements
13.2.4. Statistical Analyses
13.2.5. Global Warming Potential Calculations
13.3. RESULTS. 13.3.1. Annual Budgets of CO2 and CH4 Fluxes
13.3.2. Trend Analyses
13.3.3. Greenhouse Gas Budgets and Flux Ratios
13.4. DISCUSSION. 13.4.1. Carbon Flux Budgets, Seasonality, and Trends
13.4.2. Greenhouse Gas Budgets and Switchover Times
13.4.3. Review of CH4 Drivers and Management Options in the Delta
13.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
14 Land Management Strategies Influence Soil Organic Carbon Stocks of Prairie Potholes of North America
ABSTRACT
14.1. INTRODUCTION. 14.1.1. Case Study
14.1.2. History of Land‐Management Activities
14.1.3. Contemporary Wetland Management Activities
Hydrologic Management
Upland Management
14.2. METHODS. 14.2.1. Database Description
14.2.2. Experimental Design
14.2.3. Measurements
14.2.4. Statistical Analysis
14.3. RESULTS
14.4. DISCUSSION. 14.4.1. Hydrologic Management. Drained Potholes Have Lower SOC Stocks Than Natural Potholes
Drained and Restored Potholes Have Similar SOC Stocks
14.4.2. Upland Management
14.4.3. Policy and Management Implications
14.4.4. Future Research
14.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
15 Environmental and Human Drivers of Carbon Sequestration and Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the Ebro Delta, Spain
ABSTRACT
15.1. INTRODUCTION. 15.1.1. General Characteristics
15.1.2. Historical Land Use in the Ebro Delta
15.1.3. Wetlands Management
15.2. WETLANDS AND RICE FIELDS IN THE EBRO DELTA
15.3. CARBON DYNAMICS IN EBRO DELTA WETLANDS
15.3.1. Metabolic Rates and GHG Fluxes
15.3.2. Soil Accretion and Carbon Sequestration
15.4. CARBON DYNAMICS IN EBRO DELTA RICE FIELDS. 15.4.1. CH4 Fluxes in Rice Fields
15.4.2. Soil Accretion and Carbon Sequestration in Rice Fields
15.5. AN ECOSYSTEM PERSPECTIVE ON THE CARBON CYCLE IN THE EBRO DELTA WETLANDS
15.6. MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
15.7. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
16 Controls on Carbon Loss During Fire in Managed Herbaceous Peatlands of the Florida Everglades
ABSTRACT
16.1. INTRODUCTION
16.2. METHODS. 16.2.1. Study Sites
16.2.2. Spatial characterization of organic soil fuels
16.2.3. Water table manipulation experiment
16.2.4. Assessing combustion vulnerability
16.2.5. Aboveground fuel load
16.2.6. Assessing C stock combustion vulnerability
16.3. RESULTS. 16.3.1. Organic soil fuel properties
16.3.2. Effects of water table elevation on fuel properties
16.3.3. Surface fuel load and distribution
16.3.4. Organic soil combustion & C loss vulnerability
16.3.5. Combustion C loss projections
16.4. DISCUSSION
16.4.1. Management Applications
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
17 Winter Flooding to Conserve Agricultural Peat Soils in a Temperate Climate: Effect on Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Global Warming Potential
ABSTRACT
17.1. INTRODUCTION
17.1.1. Historical Summary
17.1.2. Management Application
17.2. METHODS. 17.2.1. Study Site
17.2.2. Experimental design
17.2.3. Measurements
Energy Balance
Meteorological Measurements
17.2.4. Statistical analysis
17.3. RESULTS. 17.3.1. Environmental Conditions
17.3.2. Carbon Dioxide Fluxes
17.3.3. Methane Fluxes
17.4. DISCUSSION
17.4.1. Carbon Dioxide
17.4.2. Methane
17.4.3. Carbon and GWP Balance
17.4.4. Management Implications
17.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
18 Carbon Storage in the Coastal Swamp Oak Forest Wetlands of Australia
ABSTRACT
18.1. INTRODUCTION
18.1.1. Historical land use
18.1.2. Management application
18.2. METHODS. 18.2.1. Study sites
18.2.2. Experimental design
18.2.3. Measurements. Aboveground biomass
Soil core collection
Supporting field data
Laboratory preparation and analyses
18.3. RESULTS. 18.3.1. Aboveground biomass stocks
18.3.2. Belowground carbon stocks
18.4. DISCUSSION. 18.4.1. Carbon stocks and variability in Australian CSOF
18.4.2. Contributions at the national scale
18.4.3. Management opportunities for restoration and adaptation
18.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
19 Managing Water Regimes: Controlling Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Fires in Indonesian Tropical Peat Swamp Forests
ABSTRACT
19.1. INTRODUCTION
19.2. METHODS AND ASSESSMENT OF KEY PARAMETERS. 19.2.1. The Sites
Tanjung Leban
Dompas
Ketapang
The Katingan‐Mentaya Project
Tanjung Puting
19.2.2. GHG Emissions
19.2.3. Groundwater Level
19.2.4. Land Subsidence
19.2.5. Statistical Analysis
19.2.6. Indexing Peat Dryness
19.3. RESULTS. 19.3.1. Effects of Conversion on GHG Emissions
19.3.2. Groundwater Level and GHG Emissions
19.3.3. Subsiding Peatlands
19.3.4. Groundwater Level and Fire Hazard
19.4. DISCUSSION
19.4.1. Water Management
Reduce CO 2 emissions
Halt peatland subsidence
Reduce risks of fire
19.4.2. Peat Fire Management
19.5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
20 Carbon Fluxes and Potential Soil Accumulation within Greater Everglades Cypress and Pine Forested Wetlands
ABSTRACT
20.1. INTRODUCTION
20.2. METHODS. 20.2.1. Site Description
20.2.2. carbon and soil accumulation
20.2.3. Atmospheric Fluxes
20.2.4. Bulk Density
20.3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. 20.3.1. Daily NEE
20.3.2. Methane emission at Dwarf Cypress
20.3.3. Soil Properties
20.3.4. Accumulation of soil organic matter
20.4. MANAGEMENT IMPLICATIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
21 Modeling the Impacts of Hydrology and Management on Carbon Balance at the Great Dismal Swamp, Virginia and North Carolina, USA
ABSTRACT
21.1. INTRODUCTION
21.1.1. History of Disturbance at the Great Dismal Swamp
21.1.2. Hydrologic Controls, Carbon Storage, and Management
21.2. METHODS. 21.2.1. Study Site Description
21.2.2. Research Components and Objectives
21.2.3. Scenario Development with Proxy Variables
21.2.4. Field Measurements
Greenhouse Gas (CO2 & CH4) Soil Flux
Peat Core Data
Above and Belowground Biomass Survey
21.2.5. Model Development
State Variables and Transition Pathways
Carbon Stock‐Flow Model
21.3. RESULTS
21.4. DISCUSSION
21.4.1. Management Application
21.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
22 Ecosystem Service Co‐Benefits of Wetland Carbon Management
ABSTRACT
22.1. WETLAND DELIVERY OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
22.2. ECOSYSTEM SERVICE VALUES
22.3. CARBON MANAGEMENT AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICE CO‐BENEFITS
22.3.1. Recreation
22.3.2. Fishing, Hunting, other Food Provisioning
22.3.3. Flood Attenuation
22.3.4. Storm Protection
22.3.5. Nutrient Retention
22.3.6. Amenity Value
22.3.7. Fire Mitigation
22.4. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
23 Status and Challenges of Wetlands in Carbon Markets
ABSTRACT
23.1. CARBON MARKETS
23.2. PROTOCOLS AND CARBON ACCOUNTING
23.3. CARBON PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
23.4. PROJECT DEVELOPMENT ECONOMICS
23.5. WETLANDS CARBON MARKET CHALLENGES
23.6. WETLAND CARBON RESEARCH NEEDS
23.7. POLICY AND OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
23.8. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
24 The Importance of Wetland Carbon Dynamics to Society: Insight from the Second State of the Carbon Cycle Science Report
ABSTRACT
24.1. INTRODUCTION. 24.1.1. Why Wetlands and Their Carbon Balance are Important to Society: We Have Come a Long Way
Box 24.1 Relevance of the wetland carbon cycle to the provision of ecosystem services
24.2. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS FROM SOCCR2
24.2.1. Wetland Carbon Cycling at a Landscape Scale
24.3. MANAGED WETLANDS AND THE CARBON CYCLE
24.3.1. Agriculture
24.3.2. Forest Management
24.3.3. Urbanization and Development Activities
24.3.4. Restoration
24.4. CLIMATE CHANGE AND WETLAND CARBON DYNAMICS
24.4.1. Case Studies
24.4.2. Future Prediction of Net C Balance in Wetlands
24.5. PERSPECTIVES
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
25 Summary of Wetland Carbon and Environmental Management: Path Forward
ABSTRACT
25.1. INTRODUCTION
25.2. PATH FORWARD
REFERENCES
INDEX
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