Оглавление
Группа авторов. North American Agroforestry
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
North American Agroforestry
Preface
Acknowledgments
1 Agroforestry as an Integrated, Multifunctional Land Use Management Strategy
Land use Management Systems in North America
Basic Principles Influencing Management Systems
Evolution of Management Systems
Evolution of North American Agroforestry
Opportunities for Agroforestry
Opportunities for Practical Application
Ecological
Economic
Social
Opportunities for Institutional Development
Academic Institutions
Government Agencies
Private Organizations
Opportunities for the Scientific Community
Opportunities for the Development of New Knowledge Systems
Progress to Date and Challenges Ahead
Basic Challenges and Progress
Inherent Constraints Being Overcome
Evolving Infrastructure
Agroforestry as an Applied Science
Research and Development
University Education
Professional and Practitioner Training
Identification and Support of Practitioners
Future Needs
References
Study Questions
2 Agroforestry Nomenclature, Concepts and Practices
Native American Agroforestry
Agroforestry as a Science
Definition and Practices. Definition
Criteria
Practices
Riparian and Upland Buffers
Windbreaks
Alley Cropping
Silvopasture
Forest Farming
Urban Food Forests
Is it Agroforestry?
Special Forest Products
Nut Plantations and Fruit Orchards
Managed Intensive Rotational Grazing
Agroforestry in the Landscape
Departures from Traditional Agroforestry Nomenclature
Nature of Components
Arrangement of Components
Functional Role
Agroecological Zone
Social and Economic Features
Perspectives on U.S. and Canadian Agroforestry
Agroforestry at the Practice Level
Agroforestry at the Science Level
Agroforestry Concepts
References
Study Questions
3 An Agroecological Foundation for Temperate Agroforestry
Ecological Interactions in Mixed Tree and Herb Systems. Categories of Systems
Closed‐Canopy Mesic Forests
Disturbance Patches and Early Successional Systems
Xeric and Transitional Forests
Ribbon Forests and Windbreaks
Riparian Forests
Isolated Grasslands
General Ecological Principles
Indicators of Agroecosystem Sustainability
Ecological Goods and Services
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Appendix 3‐1
4 Tree–Crop Interactions in Temperate Agroforestry
Species Coexistence and Ecological Interactions
Competitive Interactions—Aboveground. Competition for light
Herbivory and physical damage
Facilitative Interactions—Aboveground. Modification of the microclimate
Enhancing beneficial insect populations
Improving Wildlife Habitat
Competitive Interactions—Belowground
Competition for water
Competition for nutrients
Allelopathy
Facilitative Interactions—Belowground. Hydraulic lift
Dinitrogen fixation
Root plasticity
Safety net role
The Future
Conclusion
References
Study Questions
5 Windbreak Practices
How Windbreaks Work. Wind Flow in the Environment
Wind Flow across a Barrier
Windbreak Structure
External Structure
Internal Structure
Microclimate Changes
Radiation
Air Temperature
Soil Temperature
Frost
Precipitation
Humidity
Evaporation
Windbreaks in Agricultural Production Systems
Field Windbreaks
Physiological Response of Plants to Shelter
Growth and Development Response of Plants to Shelter
Crop Yield Response to Shelter
Field Windbreak Design
The Zone of Competition
Windbreak Economics
Wind Erosion Control
Snow Management
Integrated Pest Management and Windbreaks
Crops within the Windbreak
Livestock Windbreaks
Wind Chill Temperatures
Animal Response to Shelter
Windbreaks for Livestock Operations
Windbreak Design for Livestock Systems
Windbreaks for Odor Mitigation
Windbreak Technology at the Farm and Landscape Levels
Farmstead Windbreaks
Windbreaks for Snow Control
Wildlife Windbreaks
Windbreaks and Climate Change
Summary
References
Study Questions
6 Silvopasture Practices
Livestock and Tree Integration in North America
Silvopasture Concepts
Silvopasture Biology and Ecology
Social Factors
Economic Factors
Integrating Silvopastoral Components
Animal Component
Forage Component
Tree Component
Silvopastoral Regions
Southeast Region: History
Southeast Region: Current Silvopastoral Situation
Northeast Region
Midwest Region: Pecan Practices
Northwest Region: Overview of Mixed Conifer Forest
Northwest Region: Silvopastures
The Future of Silvopastoral Systems
References
Study Questions
7 Alley Cropping Practices
History of Alley Cropping
Tree Component. Tree Species Selection
Desirable Characteristics of Trees in Alley Cropping
Non‐Dinitrogen‐Fixing Deciduous Species
Dinitrogen‐Fixing Deciduous Species
Coniferous Species
Exotic Species
Tree Arrangement. Single Species versus Mixed Species
Single‐Row versus Multiple‐Row Configuration
Between‐ and Within‐Row Spacing
Silviculture of Alley Cropped Trees. Weed Control
Fertilization
Branch Pruning
Root Pruning
Thinning
Growth and Wood Quality
Crop Component
Row Crops
Forage Crops
Specialty Crops
Biomass Crops
Economics of Alley Cropping
Economic Framework
Alley Cropping in the Short Run
Alley Cropping in the Long Run
Economic Opportunity
Economic Example
Ecological Benefits. Overyielding
Soil Stabilization
Nutrient Retention and Water Quality Improvement
Bioremediation
Wind Protection
Carbon Sequestration
Wildlife Benefits
Insect Pest Control
Potential for Alley Cropping in the United States. Existing Alley Cropping Area
Target Adoption Areas
Timber Markets
Fruit and Nut Markets
Conclusions
References
Study Questions
8 Riparian and Upland Buffer Practices
Hillslope and Channel Processes in Agricultural Landscapes
The Hydrologic Cycle: Paths within an Ecosystem
Functions of Riparian Buffers
Filtering and Retaining Sediment
Nutrient and Chemical Processing
Controlling Stream Environments and Morphology
Water Storage, Groundwater Recharge, Flood Attenuation, and Hydrogeological Considerations
Terrestrial Habitat
Economic and Social Benefits
Present Condition of Agricultural and Grazing Landscapes
Restoration of Riparian Zone Functions. General Considerations
Riparian Buffer Models for the Agricultural Landscape
Riparian Forest Buffer Model
Multi‐Species Riparian Forest Buffer Model
Species Selection for RFBs, MRFBs, and Upland Buffers
Site Evaluation and Buffer Design
Determine What Benefits Are Needed
Identify the Best Vegetation for Providing the Needed Benefits
Determine the Minimum Acceptable Buffer or Filter Width
Develop an Installation and Maintenance Plan
Specifics of Site Preparation, Layout, and Maintenance of Buffers
Stream Bank Bioengineering as Part of the Riparian Buffer Practice
Living Structures
Collecting and Handling Live Material
Nonliving Structures
Project Design
Constructed Wetlands to Mitigate Subsurface Drainage Tile Flow
Riparian Grazing Practices
Final Thoughts on Riparian Forest and Upland Buffers
References
Study Questions
9 Forest Farming Practices
What is Forest Farming?
Historical Perspective
North American Context
Advantages and Disadvantages
What are Nontimber Forest Products?
Who Might Forest Farm NTFPS?
Establishing a Forest Farm
Market Perspective for Forest Farmed Products
Forest Farming Culinary Products
Vegetables
Mushrooms and Fungi
Forest Farming Medicinal Products
American Ginseng
Goldenseal
Other Medicinals
Forest Farming Floral and Landscaping Products
Trees and Related Products Integral to Forest Farming
Tapping Trees for Syrup
Pine Needles for Mulch and Landscaping
Honey Bee Products
Marketing Forest Farmed Products
Commodities
Value‐Added Products
Services and Experiences
Sustainability
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Appendix 9‐1—Culinary Plants that can be Forest Farmed
Appendix 9‐2—Medicinal Plants that can be Forest Farmed
Study Questions
10 Urban Food Forests and Community Agroforestry Systems
Multifunctional Greenspace in Urban Planning
Historical Precedent
Primary Production through Urban and Community Systems
Productive Placemaking and Community Strategies
Scalability and Adaptability
Urban and Community Systems in Practice
The Dunbar/Spring neighborhood in Tucson, Arizona: Agroforestry at the intersection of placemaking and neighborhood enlivening
The Bronx River Foodway: Agroforestry at the intersection of placemaking and urban planning
Edible enlivening vignettes: Agroforestry and productive placemaking on street corners and abandoned lots
Troy, New York
Syracuse, New York
Providence, Rhode Island
Conclusion
References
Study Questions
11 Vegetative Environmental Buffers for Air Quality Benefits
Abbreviations:
Impact of Odor and Particulate Matter Emission on Environmental Quality and Human Health
Impact of Odor Emission on Psychological Health
Impact of Odor Emission on Real Estate Values
Mitigation of Odor Using Vegetative Environmental Buffers
1. Optimize the crown porosity and configuration to facilitate the physical dilution and vertical diffusion
2. Species selection, crown management, and optimized configuration encourage dust and aerosol deposition
3. Enhanced adsorption, absorption, biodegradation and uptake of pollutants
References
Study Questions
Note
12 Agroforestry for Soil Health
Abbreviations
Agroforestry and Soil Carbon
Soil Physical Properties
Aggregate Stability
Bulk Density
Porosity
Hydraulic Conductivity and Infiltration
Soil Moisture
Soil Thermal Properties
Soil Biological Properties
Soil Biological Communities in Agroforestry Systems
Fungi
Earthworms and Other Macrofauna
Soil Biological Activities
Soil Biodiversity
Soil Chemical Properties. Soil Enrichment
Decontamination
Soil Health and Ecosystem Services
Supporting Services
Provisional Services
Regulatory Services
Cultural Services
Practical Implications of Soil Health and Sustainability
References
Study Questions
Note
13 Managing for Wildlife in Agroforestry
Ecological Considerations for Wildlife in Agroforestry Settings
Scale, Patch Size, and Fragmentation
Source and Sink Populations
Wildlife Damage
Implications for Management
Wildlife Responses to Agroforestry Practices
Alley Cropping
Cover Crop
Silvopasture
Riparian Buffer Strips
Windbreaks and Shelter Belts
Restoration of Bottomland and Floodplain Forests
Greentree Reservoirs
Income Associated with Wildlife in Agroforesty Systems
Financial Assistance for Conservation on Private Lands
Overview of the Farm Bill
Private Programs and Support
Impacts of Conservation Incentives on Forests and Wildlife
Income through Wildlife Hunting
Lease Hunting, Hunting Leases, and Pay‐to‐Hunt
Types of Hunting Leases
Liability and Insurance
Voluntary Nontoxic Shot Requirement
Recommendations for Providing Wildlife Benefits
Establish Realistic Goals
Promote Structural Diversity and Manage Habitat Edges
Consider Landscape Context
Limiting Factors in the Environment
Site Preparation and Tree Species Selection
Location, Location, Location
Grassland Habitats and Agroforestry Considerations
Control for Wildlife Damage
Share the Cost
Lease Hunting Opportunities
More Research is Needed
References
Study Questions
14 Agroforestry at the Landscape Level
Background. Landscape Ecology Framework
Matrix Quality
Multifunctional Landscape Framework
Contributing to a Culture‐Based Food Supply
Improving Human Health
Building on Traditional Ecological Knowledge
Box 14–1 The Karuk tribe, traditional ecological knowledge, and agroforestry
Assessing Landscapes for Agroforestry
Landscape Scale Applications
Riparian Zones
Box 14–2. Landscape Assessment for the Prairie States Forestry Project
Marginal Land
Woody Crop Optimization
Alley Crop Compatibility Zones
Sensitive and Drought‐Prone Areas
Livestock Considerations
Case Study: Application of Agroforestry in the Upper Sangamon River Watershed
Conclusions
References
Study Questions
15 Agroforestry Product Markets and Marketing
Promising Market Trends
Trends that Encourage Production and Use of Agroforestry Products
Products Produced through the Application of Agroforestry Practices
Marketing Agroforestry Products. What is Marketing?
The “Black Box”
The Marketing Planning Process
Analyzing Marketing Opportunities—Market Research and Analysis
Understanding the Business Environment—SWOT Analysis
Understanding the Competition—Porter’s Five Forces Model
Potential Entrants (Barriers to Entry)
Suppliers, Buyers, and Bargaining Power
Substitutes
Industry Competitors
Government Policy
Understanding the Customer—Consumer Analysis
Target Markets—Finding a Niche
Commodity Markets
Niche Product Markets
Market Segmentation and Target Market Selection
Developing Marketing Strategies
Competitive Strategies
Product Strategy
Distribution, Pricing, and Promotion Strategies. Distribution
Pricing
Promotion
Applying Marketing Strategies: Examples. Example 1. Ozark Forest Mushrooms
Example 2. Ozark Mountain Ginseng
Example 3. Walter’s Pumpkin Patch
Example 4. Stouffer’s Cedar Hill Farms
The Marketing Plan
Structure of a Marketing Plan
Implementing and Evaluating the Plan
Putting Porter’s Five Forces Model and Marketing Strategy Development to Work
Example 1. Applying the PFFM to the Eastern Redcedar Industry
Example 2. Analysis of competition forces in the shiitake market
Example 3. Application of the Marketing Planning Process to Midwest Elderberry Cooperative
Summary
References
Study Questions
16 Agroforestry Economics and Policy
Budgeting in an Agroforestry Context
Farm Budgeting
Whole‐Farm Budgeting
Enterprise Budgeting
Partial Budgeting
Interest Rates, Compounding, Discounting, and Discounted Cash Flow Method
Interest Rates
Compounding and Discounting
Discounted Cash Flow Method
Financial Indicators
Net Present Value
Annual Equivalent Value
Benefit/Cost Ratio
Internal Rate of Return
Land Expectation Value
Economic Profitability Estimates
Limitations of Financial Indicators
Valuation of Nonmarket Benefits from Agroforestry
Marginal Costs and Marginal Benefits
Economic Values of Ecosystem Services
Policy Implications. Federal Cost‐Share Programs
USDA Farm Service Agency
USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service
Program Effectiveness and Barriers
Summary
References
Appendix 16-1—Inflation
Study Questions
17 Human and Institutional Dimensions of Agroforestry
Agroforestry
Why are Agroforestry Practices a Potential Benefit?
The Decision Makers
Sustainable Livelihoods
Box 17–1. Silvopasture at Early Boots Farm
Box 17–2. Elderberry business at East Grove Farms
Livelihood Strategies
Capital and Capabilities
The Household Portfolio and Farm Diversification
Diversification
Pathways. Disposition to Act—Use of Habitus in Understanding Strategies
Practice and Field in Agroforestry
Box 17–3. The evolution of an NRCS EQIP special funding pool for agroforestry and woody crop establishment: A Missouri case study
Box 17–4. Maximizing landowner’s gains from agroforestry: The consumer’s perspective
The Changing Practice of Farming—Agroforestry
The Multiple Benefits and Functions of Agroforestry
Interest and Adoption in Agroforestry
Knowledge Gained during Two Decades
Landowners and Adoption Research
Attitudes and Values: Interest and Disposition to Change
Social Relations: Knowledge Networks and Information
Physical Properties: Biophysical Characteristics and Problems
Field
Diverse Agroforestry Practices and Decision Makers
Characteristics of Agroforestry Practices
Possible Barriers
Multifunctionality
Agri‐Environmental Policies and Agroforestry
Current and Future Farm Bill Policies: Implications for the Practice of Agroforestry in the Landscape
The Way Forward: Using Agroforestry to Transform the U.S. Landscape
Summary
Acknowledgments
References
Study Questions
18 An Overview of Agroforestry and its Relevance in the Mexican Context
Agroforestry as a Human–Nature System
Overview of Agroforestry Past in Mexico
Agroforestry as a Cultural Driver
Family as the Center of Agroforestry
Agroforestry and the Economy
Agroforestry and the Environment
Types of Agroforestry in Mexico
Home Garden Systems
Milpa Systems
Case Study: Lacandon Maya Milpa
Coffee Agroforestry Systems
Cocoa Agroforestry Systems
Silvopastoral Systems and Practices
Living Fences
Trees Scattered in Pastures
Grazing in Milpa Fallow Areas
Grazing in Plantations and Orchards
Pastures in Alleys of Trees
Windbreaks
Banks of Protein and/or Energy Storage
Case Study: Sheep in the Tzotzil Maya Region of Chiapas
Challenges for Mexican Agroforestry
Current Opportunities for Mexico’s Agroforestry
References
Study Questions
19 Agroforestry Education and Training
Background: Agroforestry Education and Training in the United States
Formal Agroforestry Education
Toward Continuity of Formal Education: Curricula and Teacher Training
Non‐Formal and Informal Agroforestry Training
Informal Learning Outcomes of Non‐Formal Training
Association for Temperate Agroforestry
Regional Working Groups
Nonprofit Organizations
Farmer‐led Cooperatives
Private Sector
Future Needs and Gaps in Agroforestry Education and Training
Conclusion: The Future of Agroforestry Education and Training
References
Study Questions
Index
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Отрывок из книги
EDITORS Harold E. “Gene” Garrett, Shibu Jose, and Michael A. Gold
CONTRIBUTORS Janaki R. R. Alavalapati, School of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences, Auburn University; James A. Allen, School of Forestry, Northern Arizona University; Stephen H. Anderson, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; J. Arbuckle, Department of Sociology, Iowa State University; Carla Barbieri, College of Natural Resources, North Carolina State University; Gary Bentrup, USDA National Agroforestry Center, Lincoln, Nebraska; Thomas W. Bonnot, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; James R. Brandle, School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska; Dave Brauer, Conservation and Production Research Laboratory, USDA Agricultural Research Service; Louise E. Buck, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University; Catherine J. Bukowski, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Dirk Burhans, U.S. Forest Service, University of Missouri; Zhen Cai, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Michaela M. “Ina” Cernusca, North Dakota State University; J. L. Chamberlain, USDA Forest Service; Terry R. Clason, Agricultural Center, Louisiana State University; Brent R. W. Coleman, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph; Dean Current, Center for Integrated Natural Resource and Agricultural Management, University of Minnesota; John Davis, Applied Ecology, North Carolina State University; Daniel C. Dey, U.S. Forest Service, University of Missouri; Stewart A. W. Diemont, College Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York; J. H. Fike, School of Plant Environmental Science, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Cornelia B. Flora, Department of Sociology, Iowa State University; Jie Gao, San Jose State University; Harold E. “Gene” Garrett, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Larry D. Godsey, Division of Business, Missouri Valley College; Michael A. Gold, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Andrew M. Gordon, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph; Stephen C. Grado, College of Forest Resources, Mississippi State University; Robert K. Grala, College of Forest Resources, Mississippi State University; Hannah L. Hemmelgarn, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Eric J. Holzmueller, College of Agricultural Sciences, Southern Illinois University; Thomas M. Isenhart, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Iowa State University; Guillermo Jimenez-Ferrer, El Colegio de LA Frontera Sur; Shibu Jose, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Robert J. Kremer, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; James P. Lassoie, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University; Teng Teeh Lim, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Chung-Ho Lin, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Sarah T. Lovell, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Robert L. McGraw, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri; D. Evan Mercer, Southern Research Station, USDA Forest Service; Joshua J. Millspaugh, W.A. Franke College of Forestry & Conservation, University of Montana; John F. Munsell, College of Natural Resources and Environment, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Joseph N. Orefice, Forest & Agricultural Operations, Yale University School of Forestry & Environmental Studies; Gabriel J. Pent, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; P. K. Ramachandran Nair, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, University of Florida; Richard C. Schultz, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Iowa State University; Peter L. Schultz, Target, Inc., Headquarters; John H. Schulz, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Steven H. Sharrow, Oregon State University; William W. Simpkins, Department of Geological and Atmospheric Sciences, Iowa State University; Lorena Soto-Pinto, El Colegio de LA Frontera Sur; Erik Stanek, Balzac Brothers & company, Charlston; Eugene Takle, Department of Agronomy, Iowa State University; Naresh V. Thevathasan, School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph; Ranjith P. Udawatta, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Corinne B. Valdivia, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri; W. D. “Dusty” Walter, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Eric E. Weber, School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri; Kevin J. Wolz, Savannah Institute; Mario Yanez, Overtown Foodworks Office, Inhabit Earth; Lisa Zabek, Interior of British Columbia, Ministry of Agriculture; Xinhua Zhou, Campbell Scientific, Logan, Utah
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Numerous trainings, workshops, and study tours have been very successful in attracting agroforestry practitioners. These individuals, varying widely in age from their 20s to their 60s, are typically curious, open‐minded landowners, many of whom come from an understanding of permaculture, who believe there may be a better or different way to manage agricultural and forestry resources than conventional land use approaches. They are also likely to have a multigenerational vision for the development of their production system, while at the same time adopting a willingness to compromise it in practical terms to the realities of today’s transient society. Agroforestry attracts individuals who value hard work and understand the critical role of management in generating multiple outputs in as complementary and noncompetitive a manner as possible. They are likely to experiment with various components of their evolving production system and to have created a diverse network of information resources to assist their efforts to design new systems and informally test new hypotheses. Such people can be found in the membership of numerous organizations throughout the United States and Canada (e.g., the Association for Temperate Agroforestry [AFTA], the Appalachian Beginning Forest Farmer Coalition [ABFFC], etc.) that are concerned with the development and marketing of alternative crops and enterprises or the management of natural resources. In a highly connected world of social media, they can easily reach out to existing organizations, anticipating their role in satisfying their needs for learning, improving their practices, and addressing important social issues. Once they are part of such networks, they attract others to join.
Implementation of the proposed strategy is well underway, and critical perceptual and institutional barriers to improving the capacity for knowledge and information generation about agroforestry are being addressed. Scientific knowledge about agroforestry is rapidly being integrated into practice via the host of organizations previously mentioned (Gold, 2019).
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