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Группа авторов. Handbook of Biomass Valorization for Industrial Applications
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
Tables
Guide
Pages
Handbook of Biomass Valorization for Industrial Applications
Preface
1. Photocatalytic Biomass Valorization into Valuable Chemicals
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Renewable Energy Sources: The Great Hope of the Future
1.2.1 Biomass Types and Their Composition
1.2.2 Biomass Valorization Techniques
1.2.3 Economic Aspects of Biomass Utilization
1.3 Photocatalysis & Photocatalyst
1.3.1 Mechanism for Photocatalytic Conversion of Biomass
1.3.2 TiO2 as a Significant Photocatalyst
1.3.3 Factors Affecting Photocatalytic Efficiency
1.3.4 Characterization Tests
1.3.5 Design Challenges of Photocatalytic Reactors
1.3.6 Solar Fuel Synthesis Through Photocatalysis
1.3.7 Photocatalytic Reforming
1.4 Conclusions
References
2. Biobased Aromatics—Challenges and Opportunities for Development of Lignin as Future Building Blocks
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Sources of Bio-Aromatics From Natural Material
2.3 Production of Bio-Aromatics (Bio-Aromatics as Lignin)
2.3.1 Pre-Treatment
2.3.1.1 Physical Pre-Treatment
2.3.1.2 Chemical Pre-Treatment. 2.3.1.2.1 Alkaline
2.3.1.2.2 Wet Oxidation
2.3.1.2.3 Acid
2.3.1.3 Physicochemical Pre-Treatment
2.3.1.4 Biological Treatment
2.3.2 Lignin as Bio-Aromatics
2.4 Lignin as Future Building Block
2.5 Commercialization of Biobased Aromatics
2.5.1 Phenolic Resins
2.5.2 Epoxies
2.5.3 Adhesives
2.5.4 Polyolefins
2.5.5 Miscellaneous
2.6 Conclusion and Prospects
References
3. Biofuels and Fine Chemicals From Lignocellulosic Biomass: A Sustainable and Circular Economy
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Different Methods for Biomass Transformation to Fuels and Value-Added Chemicals. 3.2.1 Pyrolysis
3.2.2 Gasification
3.2.3 Aqueous Phase Reforming Aqueous Phase Reforming
3.3 Types of Biomass
3.3.1 Wood and Woody Biomass
3.3.2 Herbaceous Biomass
3.3.3 Aquatic Biomass
3.3.4 Animal and Human Waste Biomass
3.3.5 Biomass Mixtures and Municipal Biomass
3.4 Sustainability of Biofuels
3.5 Environmental Impacts
References
4. Carbon-Based Catalysts for Biorefinery Processes: Carbon-Based Catalysts for Valorization of Glycerol Waste From Biodiesel Industry
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Production of Biodiesel and Crude Glycerol
4.3 Refining Process for Crude Glycerol
4.3.1 Neutralization/Acidification
4.3.2 Methanol Removal
4.3.3 Vacuum Distillation
4.3.4 Ion Exchange
4.3.5 Adsorption
4.4 Technologies for Glycerol Valorization
4.4.1 Biological Conversion
4.4.2 Thermochemical Conversion
4.4.2.1 Hydrogenolysis of Glycerol
4.4.2.2 Esterification and Acetylation of Glycerol
4.4.2.3 Reforming of Glycerol
4.4.2.4 Oxidation of Glycerol
4.4.2.5 Etherification
4.4.2.6 Dehydration of Glycerol
4.4.2.7 Cyclization
Conclusion
References
5. Catalysts for Conversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass Into Platform Chemicals and Bio-Aromatics
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass (LCB)
5.2.1 Cellulose
5.2.2 Hemicellulose
5.2.3 Lignin
5.3 Pre-Treatment Processes. 5.3.1 Kraft Process
5.3.2 Organosolv Process
5.4 Processes for Conversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass. 5.4.1 Fermentation
5.4.2 Anaerobic Digestion
5.4.3 Pyrolysis
5.4.4 Hydrolysis
5.4.5 Hydrothermal Liquefaction
5.4.6 Oxidation
5.4.7 Hydrogenolysis
5.5 Catalysts for Conversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass Into Platform Chemicals. 5.5.1 Catalysts for Ethanol Production
5.5.1.1 Rh-Based Catalyst
5.5.1.2 Methanol Synthesis Catalyst
5.5.1.3 Mo-Based Catalyst
5.5.1.4 Fischer–Trospsch Type Catalyst
5.5.2 Catalysts for Glycerol Production
5.5.3 Catalysts for HMF Production
5.5.4 Catalysts for Levulinic Acid Production
5.5.5 Catalysts for Furan-2,5-Dicarboxylic Acid Production
5.5.6 Catalysts for 3-Hydroxy Propionic Acid Production
5.5.7 Catalysts for Lactic Acid Production
5.5.8 Catalysts for Sorbitol Production
5.5.9 Catalysts for Xylitol Production
5.5.10 Catalysts for Succinic Acid Production
5.5.11 Catalysts for Glucaric Acid Production
5.5.12 Catalysts for Itaconic Acid Production
5.5.13 Catalysts for Aspartic Acid Production
5.5.14 Catalysts for Glutamic Acid Production
5.6 Catalysts for Conversion of LCB Into Bio-Aromatics
5.7 Conclusion
References
6. Pyrolysis of Triglycerides for Fuels and Chemical Production
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Triglyceric Biomass
6.3 Products and Properties of Triglycerides Pyrolysis
6.4 Pyrolysis Reaction
6.5 Reactor Technologies
6.6 Upgrading Techniques
6.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
7. Drying of Agro-Industrial Residues for Biomass Applications
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Moisture Content: A Key Factor for Biomass
7.3 Drying as Part of the Overall Process
7.3.1 Drying Technologies
7.3.2 Process Integration
7.4 Biomass Characterization
7.4.1 General Aspects of Biomass Characterization
7.4.2 Biomass Characterization for Mathematical Modeling
7.4.3 General Rules of Mixtures
7.5 Equilibrium Sorption Isotherms
7.5.1 Biomass Hygroscopicity and Water Activity
7.5.2 Heat of Vaporization and Isosteric Heat of Sorption
7.5.3 Interrelations Between Biomass Moisture Content, Heat of Vaporization and Drying Energy Consumption
7.6 Drying Kinetics
7.6.1 Physics of Drying
7.6.2 Isothermal Drying Conditions
7.6.3 Drying Kinetics at Laboratory Scale
7.7 Mathematical Modeling of Drying Process
7.7.1 General Model Formulation
7.7.2 Distributed Parameters System
7.7.3 Lumped Parameters System
7.8 Energy Aspects in Biomass Drying
7.9 Process Costs
7.10 Final Remarks
References
8. Extraction Characterization and Production of Biofuels From Algal Biomass
8.1 Challenges Facing the Production of Algal Fuel for Profit Purposes
8.2 Classes of Biofuel Sources
8.2.1 First-Generation Biofuels
8.2.2 Second-Generation Biofuel
8.2.3 Third-Generation Biofuels
8.2.4 Fourth-Generation Biofuels
8.3 Algal Biofuels
8.4 Transformation of Biomass Containing the Bulk of Algae (Algal Biomass) to Biofuels
8.4.1 The Biochemical Conversion
8.4.2 The Thermochemical Conversion
8.4.3 The Chemical Conversion
8.5 The Pre-Treatment Process of Algae Biomass
8.6 Derivable Biofuels From Microalgae
8.6.1 Biochar
8.6.2 Methane
8.6.3 Bioethanol
8.6.4 Hydrogen
8.6.5 Biodiesel
8.6.6 Nanoparticles
8.7 Conclusion
References
9. Valorization of Biomass Derived Aldehydes Into Oxygenated Compounds
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Background of Biomass Conversion Into Value-Added Chemicals
9.3 Biomass Derived Industrially Important Chemicals
9.4 Synthesis of the HMF and Furfural From Biomass. 9.4.1 HMF Synthesis From Biomass
9.4.2 Furfural Synthesis From Biomass
9.5 Valorization of the Biomass Derived Aldehydes Into Valuable Chemicals
9.5.1 Valorization of HMF and Furfural
9.5.2 Processes for Valorization of HMF and Furfural
9.5.3 Valorization of HMF and Furfural by Reduction Processes
9.5.4 Valorization of HMF and Furfural Using Oxidation Reactions
9.6 Conclusions and Perspective
Acknowledgements
References
10. Advancements in Chemical and Biotechnical Approaches Towards Valorization of Wastes From Food Processing Industries
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 The Generation of Food Processing Waste
10.2 Fruit and Vegetable Industries Processing Waste (FVPW)
10.2.1 Modern Extraction Techniques for FVPW
10.2.1.1 Supercritical Fluid Extraction
10.2.1.2 Pressurized Liquid Extraction
10.2.1.3 Microwave-Assisted Extraction
10.2.1.4 Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction
10.2.1.5 Enzyme Assisted Extraction
10.3 Dairy Industry Processing Waste
10.3.1 Sources and Properties of Dairy Industry Processing Waste
10.3.2 Valorization of Whey
10.3.2.1 Biotechnological Methods
10.3.3 Whey Proteins Recovery
10.3.3.1 Membrane Technology
10.4 Waste Generated by Meat Processing Industries
10.5 Waste Generated by Beverage Industries
10.6 Conclusion
References
11. Photocatalytic Biomass Transformation into Valuable Products
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Composition and Structure
11.1.2 Extraction and Architect
11.1.3 Uses
11.2 Modified Lignin
11.2.1 Native Intact Lignin
11.3 Biomass Transformation Methods
11.3.1 Economics
11.3.2 Photocatalysis
11.3.3 Mechanism
11.3.4 Heterogeneous Photocatalysis
11.3.5 Oxygen Reduction Reaction
11.4 Photocatalysis and Biomass
11.4.1 Photodegradation of Lignin
11.4.2 Catalysis of Cellulose
11.4.3 Photochemical Conversion of Glucose
11.5 Recent Advances
11.5.1 Combinatorial Approach for Scale Up
11.5.2 Supporter Applications
11.5.3 Photocatalyst-Assisted Enzymatic Hydrolysis
11.5.4 Photochemical and Biochemical Combination for Degradation of Lignin
11.5.5 Combination of Photochemical and Electrochemical Approach
11.6 Innovative Approaches
11.6.1 Zeolite-Based Catalysts
11.7 Challenges and the Future
11.8 Conclusion
References
12. Organic Materials Valorization: Agro-Waste in Environmental Remediation, Phytochemicals, Biocatalyst and Biofuel Production
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sources of Food and Agro-Waste. 12.2.1 Food Waste
12.2.2 Agro-Waste
12.2.3 Composition of Agro-Waste
12.3 Multifunctional Group of Agro-Waste
12.3.1 Key Pathogenic Organisms for Bioconversion of Agro-Waste
12.3.2 Technological Dimensions of Agro-Waste Microbial Bioconversion
12.4 Biomass Vaporization Phytochemicals
12.4.1 Direct Application of Plant Parts
12.4.2 Phytochemicals Production from Waste Biomass
12.4.3 Bioactivity Process
12.4.4 Therapeutic Products Derived Using Biomass
12.5 Agro-Waste for Biocatalyst
12.6 Agro-Waste for Biofuel Production
12.6.1 Significant Steps in Biochemical Routes for Processing Biofuels. 12.6.1.1 Pre-Treatment
12.6.1.2 Physical Treatment
12.6.1.3 Chemical Pre-Treatment
12.7 Conclusion
References
13. Valorization of Secondary Metabolites in Plants
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Plant Secondary Metabolites
13.1.2 Importance of Secondary Metabolites in Plants
13.1.3 Importance of Secondary Metabolites in the Pharmaceutical Industry
13.2 Evolution and Distribution of Plant Secondary Metabolites
13.3 Distribution of Secondary Metabolites in Relation to Chemotaxonomy
13.4 Need of Enhancement of Secondary Metabolites in Plants
13.5 Methods for Continuous and Enhanced Production of Secondary Metabolites. 13.5.1 Plant Tissue Culture
13.5.2 In Vitro Cultures
13.5.3 Elicitation for Enhanced Production of Secondary Metabolites
13.5.4 Agrobacterium Mediated Hairy Root Cultures
13.5.5 Nanoparticles for Secondary Metabolites
13.6 Challenges in Using In Vitro Techniques
13.7 Origin of New Genes for Secondary Metabolism
13.8 Combinatorial Approach for Production of Diverse Secondary Metabolite Production
13.9 Mutation Breeding
References
14. Functional and Digestibility Properties of Native, Single, and Dual Modified Rice (Oryza sativa L.) Starches for Food Applications
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Rice Starch
14.1.1.1 Morphology of Rice Starch
14.1.1.2 Gelatinization
14.1.1.3 Retrogradation
14.1.1.4 Pasting
14.1.1.5 Swelling and Solubilization
14.1.1.6 Enzymatic Hydrolysis and Digestibility
14.1.2 Starch Modification
14.1.2.1 Physical Modification
14.1.2.2 Chemical Modification
14.1.2.3 Dual Modifications
14.1.2.3.1 Dual Physical Modification
14.1.2.3.2 Dual Chemical Modification
14.1.2.3.3 Other Dual Modifications
14.1.3 Application of Starch in Food Systems
Conclusion
References
15. Valorization of Agricultural Wastes: A Step Toward Adoption of Smart Green Materials with Additional Benefit of Circular Economy
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Synthesis of Nanomaterial Derived From Agricultural Waste
15.2.1 Production of Nanomaterials From Rice Straw
15.2.2 Production of Nanomaterials From Sugarcane Bagasse
15.2.3 Production of Nanomaterials From Wheat Straw
15.3 Applications. 15.3.1 Applications of Silica-Based Nanomaterials
15.3.1.1 Agricultural Application
15.3.1.2 Environmental Application
15.3.1.3 Energy Storage
15.3.1.4 Composites for Packing
15.3.1.5 Tailored Nanobiomaterials
15.3.2 Applications of Lignin Nanoparticles
15.3.2.1 Environmental Application
15.3.2.2 Energy Storage
15.3.2.3 Novel Catalyst
15.3.2.4 Composite for Packing
15.3.2.5 Tailored Nanobiomaterials
15.3.3 Applications of Carbon-Based Nanomaterial
15.3.3.1 Environmental Applications
15.3.3.2 Energy Storage
15.3.3.3 Novel Catalyst
15.3.4 Applications of Nanocellulose
15.3.4.1 Environmental Applications
15.3.4.2 Energy Storage
15.3.4.3 Development of Novel Catalysts
15.3.4.4 Papermaking
15.3.4.5 Composites for Packaging
15.3.4.6 Tailored Nanobiomaterials for Biomedical Applications
15.3.5 Applications of Nanobiochar
15.3.5.1 Environmental Applications
15.3.5.2 Energy Storage
15.3.5.3 Catalytic Applications
15.4 Conclusion
References
16. Valorization of Agricultural Wastes: An Approach to Impart Environmental Friendliness
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Agricultural Wastes
16.2.1 Crop Residues
16.2.2 Agricultural Wastes From Industry
16.2.3 Fruit and Vegetable Wastes
16.2.4 Livestock Wastes
16.3 Valorization of Agricultural Waste for Production of Fertilizers
16.3.1 Organic Fertilizers
16.3.2 Agricultural Waste–Based Organic Fertilizers
16.3.3 Viability of Organic Fertilizers
16.4 Valorization of Agricultural Waste for Production of Biofuels
16.4.1 Biofuel Production Methods
16.4.1.1 Pre-Treatment of Agricultural Wastes
16.4.1.2 Anaerobic Digestion
16.4.1.3 Fermentation
16.4.1.4 Transesterification
16.4.2 Production of Biomethane
16.4.3 Production of Bioethanol
16.5 Valorization of Agricultural Waste for Wastewater Treatment
16.5.1 Removal of Heavy Metals Using Agricultural Wastes
16.5.2 Removal of Dyes Using Agricultural Wastes
16.6 Conclusion
References
17. Valorization of Biomass Into Value-Added Products and Its Application Through Hydrothermal Liquefaction
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Biomass
17.2.1 Feed Stock for HTL
17.2.2 Mechanism in HTL
17.3 Factors Influencing HTL Products
17.3.1 Effect of Temperature
17.3.2 Effect of Biomass to H2O Loading
17.3.3 Effect of Reaction Time
17.3.4 Effect of Catalyst
17.3.5 Effect of Solvent
17.3.6 Effect of pH
17.4 Separation of Bioproducts Derived From HTL of Biomass
17.5 Characterization and Application of HTL Products
17.5.1 Characterization of HTL Derived Biochar. 17.5.1.1 Surface Analysis of Biochar Using SEM Analysis
17.5.1.2 Functional Group Analysis of Biochar Using XRD Pattern
17.5.1.3 Functional Group Analysis of Biochar Using FT-IR
17.5.1.4 Adsorption Isothermal Analysis of Biochar Using BET Isotherm
17.5.1.5 Purity and Contaminants Analysis of Biochar Using TGA
17.5.1.6 Application of Biochar in Various Fields of Study
17.5.2 Characterization of HTL Derived Biocrude. 17.5.2.1 Functional Group Analysis of Biocrude Using FT-IR
17.5.2.2 Product Identification From Biocrude Using GC-MS Analysis
17.5.2.3 Thermal Stability of Biocrude Using TGA Analysis
17.5.2.4 Application of Biocrude in Various Fields of Study
17.5.3 Characterization of HTL Derived Biogas. 17.5.3.1 Major Components of Biogas for HTL
17.5.3.2 Energy Content/Calorific Value of Biogas
17.5.3.3 Product Identification From Biogas Using GC-MS Analysis
17.5.3.4 Application of Biogas in Various Fields of Study
17.6 Conclusion
References
18. Industrial Applications of Cellulose Extracted from Agricultural and Food Industry Wastes
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Structure of Cellulose
18.1.2 Semi-Crystalline Nature of Cellulose
18.2 Cellulose Biomass
18.3 Derivatization
18.3.1 Derivatized Forms. 18.3.1.1 Macroderivatives
18.3.1.2 Microderivatives
18.3.1.3 Nanoderivatives
18.4 Method of Preparation
18.4.1 Cellulose Isolation
18.4.2 Derivatized Forms of Cellulose. 18.4.2.1 Methyl Cellulose (MC)
18.4.2.2 Ethyl Cellulose (EC)
18.4.2.3 Hydroxypropyl Cellulose (HPC)
18.4.2.4 Cellulose Acetate (CA)
18.4.2.5 Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC)
18.4.2.6 Microcrystalline Cellulose
18.4.2.7 Nanofibrillated Cellulose (NFCs) and Nanocrystalline Cellulose (NCC)
18.5 Applications
18.5.1 Methyl Cellulose
18.5.2 Ethyl Cellulose
18.5.3 Hydroxypropyl Cellulose
18.5.4 Carboxymethyl Cellulose
18.5.5 Microcrystalline Cellulose
18.5.6 Nanofibrillated and Nanocrystalline Cellulose
18.6 Conclusion
References
19. Valorization of Lignin Toward the Production of Novel Functional Materials
19.1 Introduction. 19.1.1 Lignin Structure and Importance
19.2 Various Pre-Treatment Methods for Separation of Lignin From Biomass
19.2.1 Kraft Pulping Process
19.2.2 Sulfite Pulping Process
19.2.3 Soda/Alkali Lignin Process
19.2.4 Organosolv Lignin Process
19.2.5 Ionic Liquid Pre-Treatments
19.2.6 Mechanical Comminution
19.2.7 Alkaline Pre-Treatment
19.2.8 Acidic Pre-Treatment
19.3 Characterization Techniques for Lignin
19.3.1 UV Spectroscopy
19.3.2 FT-IR Spectroscopy
19.3.3 NMR Spectroscopy
19.3.4 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
19.3.5 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)
19.4 Lignin-Based Nanomaterials
19.5 Lignin Reinforced with Polymer-Based Composites. 19.5.1 Lignin Reinforced with Thermosets
19.5.2 Lignin Reinforced with Thermo-Plastics
19.6 Lignin-Based Adhesives
References
20. Characterization and Valorization of Sludge From Textile Wastewater Plant for Positive Environmental Applications
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Characterization of Sludge
20.3 Treatment of Sludge
20.3.1 Thermochemical Process
20.3.1.1 Combustion
20.3.1.2 Pyrolysis
20.3.1.3 Gasification
20.3.2 Biological Fermentation
20.3.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion
20.3.2.2 Aerobic Digestion
20.4 Valorization of Sludge
20.4.1 Conversion of Sludge Into Biogas
20.4.2 Conversion of Sludge Into Biosorbents
20.4.3 Conversion of Sludge Into Oils
20.4.4 Conversion of Sludge Into Electricity
20.4.5 Conversion of Sludge Into Biofuels
20.5 Conclusion
References
21. Impact of Biofertilizers in Sustainable Growth of Agriculture Sector
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Types of Biofertilizers. 21.2.1 Nitrogen Fixing Biofertilizers (NFB)
21.2.2 Phosphorus Biofertilizers
21.2.3 Potassium Solubilizing Biofertilizer
21.2.4 Plant Growth Promoting Biofertilizers (PGPB)
21.2.5 Zinc Solubilizing Biofertilizers (ZSB)
21.2.6 Silicate Solubilizing Biofertilizers (SSB)
21.2.7 Sulfur Oxidizing Biofertilizers (SOB)
21.3 Methods of Application of Biofertilizers
21.4 Types of Bioformulations
21.5 Points of Interest of Utilizing Biofertilizers
21.6 Impact of Biofertilizers on Soil Microorganisms
21.7 International Market of Biofertilizers
21.8 Upgradation of Biofertilizer Utilization for Sustainable Agricultural Production
21.9 Limitations in Biofertilizer Technology
21.10 Conclusions
References
22. Valorization of Agricultural Wastes as Low-Cost Adsorbents Towards Efficient Removal of Aqueous Cr(VI)
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Influence of Adsorption Parameters on Cr(VI) Uptake. 22.2.1 Influence of pH
22.2.2 Influence of Temperature
22.2.3 Influence of Contact Time
22.2.4 Influence of Adsorbent Dose
22.2.5 Influence of Initial Cr(VI) Concentration
22.3 Kinetics of Adsorption
22.4 Adsorption Isotherm Models
22.4.1 Langmuir Isotherm Model
22.4.2 Freundlich Isotherm Model
22.4.3 Dubinin-Radushkevich Isotherm Model
22.4.4 Temkin Isotherm Model
22.4.5 Redlich-Peterson Isotherm Model
22.4.6 Sips Isotherm Model
22.5 Adsorption Thermodynamics
22.6 Evaluation of Adsorption Capacities and Mechanism of Adsorption
22.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
Index
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