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Группа авторов. Urban Ecology and Global Climate Change
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Urban Ecology and Global Climate Change
List of Contributors
Foreword
Foreword
1 Urban Ecology and Climate Change: Challenges and Mitigation Strategies
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Urban Ecology
1.2 Components of Urban Ecology
1.2.1 Urban (Built) Infrastructures
1.2.1.1 Urban Heat Islands
1.2.2 Urban Vegetation
1.2.3 Urban Metabolism
1.3 Climate Change as Emerging Challenge for Urban Ecology
1.3.1 Urban Ecosystems as Indicators of Future Ecosystems
1.3.2 Impact on Urban Flora
1.3.2.1 Invasive Species and Climate Change
1.4 Bibliometric Analysis for Urban Ecology and Climate Change Nexus
1.5 Emerging Features of Urban Ecology for Mitigating Climate Change
1.5.1 Ecosystem Services
1.5.2 Plant Adaptations
1.5.3 Green Infrastructure
1.5.3.1 Green Space Development
1.5.3.2 Green‐roofs
1.5.3.3 Green Building
1.5.3.4 Urban Water Bodies
1.5.4 Urban Vegetation and CO2 Absorption
1.5.4.1 Urban Soils
1.6 Conclusions and Future Research Directions
Acknowledgements
References
Web links
2 Climate Change, Urbanisation, and Their Impact on Increased Occurrence of Cardiometabolic Syndrome*
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Overview of Cardiometabolic Syndromes
2.3 Pathophysiology of Cardiometabolic Syndromes
2.4 Urbanisation as a Factor to Increase Cardiometabolic and Cardiovascular Disorders. 2.4.1 The Driving Development of Urbanisation and Its Implications on Cardiovascular Syndrome in the Twenty‐First Century
2.4.2 Mutualistic Relationship Between Urbanisation and Ecosystem
2.4.3 Why Is Urban Development a Challenge for Cardiometabolic Syndrome?
2.4.4 Attempts to Combat Cardiometabolic Syndrome Risk Factors
2.5 Climate Change as a Risk Factor to Increase the Occurrence of Cardiometabolic Syndrome. 2.5.1 Changing Climate Is One of the World's Principal Concerns
2.5.2 Indicators That Have Been Predominant Contributors to Climate Change
2.5.3 Health Impacts of Climate Change
2.5.4 Potential Method for Improvement of Cardiometabolic Disorder Conditions by Reducing Greenhouse Gases
2.5.5 Introduction to Obesity and Its Associated Risk Factors Influencing Cardiometabolic Syndrome
2.5.6 The Impact of Urbanisation on Epidemiology of Obesity and Overweight in Relation to Cardiometabolic Syndrome
2.5.7 Obesity, a Major Risk Factor for Prevalent Cardiometabolic Syndrome
2.5.8 Obesity, a Major Risk Factor for Prevalent Metabolic Syndrome in Women
2.5.9 Childhood Obesity, a Growing Concern
2.5.10 Cardiometabolic Syndrome Associated Cancer Facilitated by Inflammation and Obesity
2.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Note
3 An Alternative Sustainable City Framework to Tackle Climate Change Issues in India
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Urbanization and Its Consequences
3.2.1 Climate Change
3.2.1.1 Direct Effects of Climate Change
3.2.1.2 Indirect Impact of Climate Change on Urban Areas
3.2.2 Urban Sprawl
3.3 Need for Alternative Sustainable Urban Development Model
3.3.1 New Urbanism
3.3.2 Transit‐oriented Development (TOD)
3.3.3 Smart Growth
3.3.4 Smart Cities and Sustainable Development
3.4 Conclusion
References
4 Integrated Water Resource Management for Future Water Security
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Significance of the Study. 4.2.1 Water Resources and Rising Water Insecurity
4.2.2 Deteriorated Surface Water Bodies
4.2.3 Overexploited Groundwater Resources
4.2.4 Water Quality
4.2.5 Abrupt Rainfall Pattern
4.2.6 Government‐led Initiatives
4.2.7 Urban Water Crisis and Poor Management
4.3 Methodology. 4.3.1 Integrated Water Management
4.4 Recommendations for an Integrated Management of Water Resources. 4.4.1 Regulate Water Extraction
4.4.2 Water Quality
4.4.3 Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle Water
4.4.4 Rainwater Harvesting
4.4.5 Agricultural Reforms
4.4.6 Reusability of Wastewater
4.4.7 Conjunctive Use of All Resources
4.4.8 Sustainability of the Source
4.4.9 Participatory Mechanism
4.4.10 Decentralisation of Action Plans
4.5 Conclusion
References
5 Water Urbanism and Multifunctional Landscapes: Case of Adyar River, Chennai, and Ganga River, Varanasi, India
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Definitions and Perspectives in the Spectrum of Multifunctional Landscapes
5.3 Case Studies
5.3.1 Case Study 1: Adyar Ecological Restoration Project
5.3.1.1 Study of Wastewater and Sewage Outfalls
5.3.1.2 Encroachments Inside the Poonga
5.3.1.3 The Ecological Philosophy for the Poonga – Restoration Ecology: An Evolutionary Paradigm
5.3.1.4 The physical and social aspects
5.3.1.5 Significance of the project
5.3.2 Case Study 2: Ganga Ghats and Kunds of Varanasi
5.3.2.1 River vs. Kunds of Varanasi
5.4 Inferences from the Two Case Studies
5.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
6 Urban Landscape Change Detection Using GIS and RS: Chattogram City Corporation, Bangladesh
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Materials and Methods
6.2.1 Data Collection
6.2.2 Shape File Preparation and Image Processing
6.2.3 Supervised Classification and Map Preparation
6.2.4 Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) Change Detection
6.2.5 Accuracy Assessment
6.3 Results and Discussion
6.4 Conclusion
References
7 Emerging Techniques for Urban Resource Restoration of Various Ecosystem: Bioremediation, Phytoremediation, Habitat Enhancement
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Urban Resources and Waste Generation
7.3 Composition of Urban Solid Waste
7.4 Threats from Urban Wastes
7.4.1 Health Impacts
7.4.2 Environmental Impacts
7.4.2.1 Soil
7.4.2.2 Water
7.4.2.3 Air
7.5 Emerging Techniques for Waste Treatment and Ecological Restoration
7.5.1 Bioremediation
7.5.2 Phytoremediation
7.6 Mitigation and Remedial Measures for Urban Environmental Problems
7.6.1 Waste Management Practices
7.6.1.1 Waste to Energy. 7.6.1.1.1 Incineration
7.6.1.1.2 Pyrolysis and Gasification
7.6.1.2 Composting
7.6.1.3 Vermicomposting
7.6.1.4 Landfilling/Dumping
7.6.1.5 Disposal into Aquatic Systems
7.7 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
8 Phytoremediation of Urban Air Pollutants: Current Status and Challenges
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Advantages of Phytoremediation
8.3 Disadvantages of Phytoremediation
8.4 Processes Encompassing Phytoremediation
8.5 Phytoremediation of Urban Air Pollutants
8.5.1 Particulate Matter (PM)
8.5.2 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
8.5.3 Inorganic Air Pollutants (IAP)
8.6 Plant–microbe Symbiosis in Phytoremediation of Urban Air Pollutants
8.7 Transgenic Plants for Phytoremediation of Air Pollutants
8.8 Conclusion
References
9 Tree Benefits in Urban Environment and Incidences of Tree Vandalism: A Review for Potential Solutions
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Benefits of Urban Trees
9.3 Selection Criteria for the Urban Trees
9.3.1 Sites for Urban Tree Planting
9.4 Urban Trees Vandalism
9.4.1 Criteria Indicators for Tree Vandalism
9.4.2 Potential Solutions to Prevent Tree Vandalism
9.5 Conclusions
References
10 Environmental Status of Green Spaces in Bhaktapur District of Nepal – 2019
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Literature Review. 10.2.1 Urban Development Overview
10.2.2 Roles of Green Space
10.2.3 Green Spaces
10.2.4 Relevance of Green Space Study
10.2.5 Measurement of Green Spaces
10.2.6 Indices for Measurement of Green Spaces
10.3 Study Area
10.4 Methods
10.4.1 Land Use Land Cover (LULC)
10.4.2 Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)
10.4.3 Distance to Green Spaces
10.4.4 Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP)
10.4.5 Weighted Urban Green Space Index (WUGSI)
10.4.6 Environmental Status Parameters
10.5 Results
10.6 Discussion
10.7 Conclusion
References
11 Challenges and Opportunities of Establishing Jungle Flora Nursery in Urban Settlements
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Breeding Techniques: Jungle Flora Species. 11.2.1 Plus and Elite Tree Selection
11.2.2 Wild Seed Collection
11.2.3 Vegetative Propagation
11.2.4 Micro‐propagation/Plant Tissue Culture (PTC)
11.3 Challenges of Including Jungle Flora Species in Urban Nurseries. 11.3.1 Lack of Awareness
11.3.2 Lack of Availability
11.3.3 Lack of Research on Propagation Techniques
11.3.4 Air Pollution Tolerance
11.3.5 Over‐exploitation Risk
11.4 Overcoming the Challenges. 11.4.1 Creation of Native Forest Species Seed Banks
11.4.2 Connecting the Dots Between Forest Species Research Institutes and Commercial Nurseries
11.4.3 Purchase of Wild Seeds
11.5 Conclusion
References
12 Effect of the Changing Climate and Urban Ecology on Spreading of Infectious Diseases Including SARS‐CoV‐2
12.1 Introduction
12.1.1 Urbanisation as a Factor to Increase Infectious Disorders
12.1.2 Changing Climate as Another Factor Responsible for Increasing the Infectious Disorders
12.1.2.1 Deforestation That Affects Climate Indirectly
12.2 Spread and Emergence of Novel Fungal Infections with Changing Climate and Urban Ecology
12.2.1 Emergence of Multidrug‐resistant Strains of Candida and Candidiasis. 12.2.1.1 Adaptation to Environmental Stress
12.2.1.2 Isolation and Epidemiology of Candida auris
12.2.1.2.1 Major Risk Factors for C. auris Infections
12.2.1.2.2 Major Virulence Traits of C. auris. 12.2.1.2.2.1 Secretion of Hydrolytic Enzymes
12.2.1.2.2.2 Morphological Transitions
12.2.1.2.2.3 Biofilm Development
12.2.1.3 Antifungal Resistance and Candidiasis
12.2.2 Mucormycosis in Immunocompromised Patients
12.2.2.1 Major Virulence Traits of Mucormycosis
12.2.2.1.1 Adaptation to Environmental Stresses
12.2.2.1.2 Antifungal Resistance and Mucormycosis
12.2.3 Implication of Changing Climate and Urban Ecology on the Spread of Fungal Infections in Relation to SARS‐CoV‐2
12.3 Spread and Emergence of Newer Bacterial Infections with Change in Climate and Urban Ecology
12.3.1 Infection by Acinetobacter baumannii
12.3.1.1 Major Infections Caused by A. baumannii
12.3.1.2 Effect of Climate Change on A. baumannii Infection
12.3.2 Infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
12.3.2.1 Multi‐drug Resistant TB
12.3.2.2 Extensively Drug‐resistant TB (XDR)
12.3.3 Implication of the Changing Climate and Urban Ecology on the Spread of Bacterial Infections in Relation to SARS‐CoV‐2
12.4 Spread and Emergence of Newer Viral Infections with Change in Climate and Urban Ecology. 12.4.1 Ebola Viral Infection
12.4.1.1 Epidemiology and Clinical Analysis of Ebola Virus
12.4.1.2 Risk Factors for Ebola Viral Infection
12.4.2 H1N1 Flu Infection
12.4.2.1 Risk Factors for H1N1 Flu
12.4.3 Encephalitis (A Viral Infection) 12.4.3.1 Epidemiology and Clinical Analysis
12.4.3.2 Mutations in Genomes
12.4.4 Corona Viral Infection Including SARS‐CoV‐2
12.4.4.1 Clinical Analysis and Epidemiology
12.4.4.2 Risk Factors Associated with Spread of Corona Infection. 12.4.4.2.1 Urbanisation
12.4.4.2.2 Climate Change
12.5 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
13 Human–Wildlife Conflict in the Mumbai Metropolitan Region – An Empirical Study
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Methodology. 13.2.1 Study Area
13.2.2 Data Collection and Analysis. 13.2.2.1 Sources of Data
13.2.2.2 Data Collection
13.2.2.3 Data Entry and Analysis
13.3 Results and Discussion. 13.3.1 Overview of Findings
13.3.2 Taxon‐wise Analysis of Rescue Operations
13.3.3 Impact of Seasons on Rescue Operations
13.3.4 Geographical Analysis of Rescue Operations
13.3.5 Limitations of the Study
13.3.6 Implications for Researchers, Citizens, and Policymakers. 13.3.6.1 For Researchers
13.3.6.2 For Citizens
13.3.6.3 For Policymakers
13.3.7 Recommendations
13.4 Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
14 Building Knowledge on Urban Sustainability in the Czech Republic: A Self‐assessment Approach
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Sustainable Development at a Local Level
14.3 Sustainability Assessment – A General View
14.4 Sustainability Assessment at the Local Level
14.5 Local Agenda 21 and Its Assessment in the Czech Republic
14.6 Urban Sustainability Audit – Implementation of the City Self‐assessment
14.7 Benefits and Challenges – Municipal Representatives and External Experts' Views
14.8 Key Findings and Conclusions
14.9 Limits of the Study
References
15 A Sustainable Approach to Combat Climate Change: Case Studies from Some Urban Systems
Abbreviations
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Urbanisation and Climate Change
15.3 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
15.4 Sustainable Approaches to Combat Climate Change
15.4.1 Sustainable Cities
15.4.2 Urban Green Infrastructure
15.4.3 Technology and Innovations
15.4.4 Targets, Campaigns, and Missions
15.5 Case Studies
15.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives
References
16 Threats from Sea Level Rise and Erosion: A Case Study of An Estuarine Inhabited Island Ghoramara, Hooghly Estuary
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Materials and Methods. 16.2.1 Study Area
16.2.2 Data Used in This Study
16.2.3 Software
16.2.3.1 DSAS
16.2.4 Methods. 16.2.4.1 Data Processing
16.2.4.2 Shoreline Delineation
16.2.4.3 Method of Casting Transect from Baseline
16.2.4.4 Shoreline Change Rate Assessment methods
16.2.4.5 Calculation of Net Areal Change
16.3 Results. 16.3.1 End Point Rates
16.3.2 Shoreline Change Envelope
16.3.3 Relative Sea‐level Change
16.3.4 Areal Extent of Erosion
16.3.5 Shoreline Change Rate Prediction
16.4 Discussion
16.5 Conclusion
References
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