X-Ray Fluorescence in Biological Sciences

X-Ray Fluorescence in Biological Sciences
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X-Ray Fluorescence in Biological Sciences Discover a comprehensive exploration of X-ray fluorescence in chemical biology and the clinical and plant sciences In X-Ray Fluorescence in Biological Sciences: Principles, Instrumentation, and Applications , a team of accomplished researchers delivers extensive coverage of the application of X-ray fluorescence (XRF) in the biological sciences, including chemical biology, clinical science, and plant science. The book also explores recent advances in XRF imaging techniques in these fields. The authors focus on understanding and investigating the intercellular structures and metals in plant cells, with advanced discussions of recently developed micro-analytical methods, like energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (EDXRF), total reflection X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (TXRF), micro-proton induced X-ray emission (micro-PIXE), electron probe X-ray microanalysis (EPXMA), synchrotron-based X-ray fluorescence microscopy (SXRF, SRIXE, or micro-XRF) and secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS). With thorough descriptions of protocols and practical approaches, the book also includes: A thorough introduction to the historical background and fundamentals of X-ray fluorescence, as well as recent developments in X-ray fluorescence analysis Comprehensive explorations of the general properties, production, and detection of X-rays and the preparation of samples for X-ray fluorescence analysis Practical discussions of the quantification of prepared samples observed under X-ray fluorescence and the relation between precision and beam size and sample amount In-depth examinations of wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence and living materials Perfect for students and researchers studying the natural and chemical sciences, medical biology, plant physiology, agriculture, and botany, X-Ray Fluorescence in Biological Sciences: Principles, Instrumentation, and Applications will also earn a place in the libraries of researchers at biotechnology companies.

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Группа авторов. X-Ray Fluorescence in Biological Sciences

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List of Illustrations

Guide

Pages

X‐Ray Fluorescence in Biological Sciences. Principles, Instrumentation, and Applications

List of Contributors

Preface

1 X‐Ray Fluorescence and Comparison with Other Analytical Methods (AAS, ICP‐AES, LA‐ICP‐MS, IC, LIBS, SEM‐EDS, and XRD)

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Analytical Capabilities of XRF and Micro‐XRF

1.2.1 Micro‐XRF

1.3 Comparison with Other Analytical Methods. 1.3.1 Overview

1.3.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Analysis

1.3.2.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP‐MS)

1.3.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP‐AES)

1.3.4 Ion Chromatography (IC)

1.3.5 Laser‐Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS)

1.3.6 Proton‐Induced X‐Ray Emission (PIXE)

1.3.7 Scanning Electron Microscopy–Energy Dispersive X–Ray Spectroscopy (SEM‐EDS)

1.3.7.1 Differences in XRF and SEM‐EDS (Sample Handling, Experimental Conditions, Sample Stress, and Excitation Sources)

1.3.7.2 Combination of SEM‐EDS and μ‐XRF

1.4 Comparison of XRF and XRD

1.5 Comparison of XRF and Raman Spectroscopy

1.6 Conclusion and Prospects

References

2 X‐Ray Fluorescence for Multi‐elemental Analysis of Vegetation Samples

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Features and Analytical Capabilities of XRF Configurations used in Vegetation Sample Analysis

2.3 General Sample Treatment Procedures used for Vegetation Sample Analysis using XRF Techniques

2.4 Applications of XRF in the Field of Vegetation Samples Analysis. 2.4.1 Environmental Studies

2.4.2 Nutritional and Agronomic Studies

2.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives

References

3 X‐Ray Fluorescence Studies of Tea and Coffee

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The Equipment Used

3.3 Preparation of Samples for Analysis

3.4 Examples of Practical Applications of XRF for Tea Research

3.5 Examples of Practical Applications of XRF for Coffee Research

3.6 Determination of the Elemental Composition of Krasnodar Tea Samples by TXRF and WDXRF

3.6.1 Instrumentation

3.6.2 Suspension Preparation

3.6.3 Infusion Preparation

3.6.4 Acid Digestion

3.6.5 Preparation of Samples for WDXRF

3.6.6 Results and Discussion

3.7 Interelement Effects and Procedures of their Accounting

3.8 Conclusion

References

4 Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence and it’s Suitability for Biological Samples

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Advantages and Limitations of conventional XRF for Elemental Determinations in Biological Systems

4.3 Factors Limiting the Application of XRF for Biological Sample Analysis

4.4 Modifying XRF to Make it Suitable for Elemental Determinations at Trace Levels: Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) Spectrometry

4.4.1 Principles of TXRF

4.4.2 Theoretical Considerations

4.4.3 TXRF Instrumentation for Trace Element Determination

4.4.4 Sample Preparation for TXRF Analysis

4.5 Suitability of TXRF for Elemental Analysis in Biological Samples

References

Note

5 Micro X‐Ray Fluorescence and X‐Ray Absorption near Edge Structure Analysis of Heavy Metals in Micro‐organism

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Effects of Heavy Metals on Microbial Growth

5.3 Application of μ‐XRF and XAS in Understanding the Cycling of Elements Driven by Micro‐organism

5.4 Application of μ‐XRF and XAS in Understanding the Transformation of Elements Driven by Micro‐organisms

5.5 Application of μ‐XRF and XAS in Understanding the Mechanism of Using Micro‐organisms in Bioremediation

5.6 The Advantage of Using μ‐XRF and XAS to Explore the Interaction Mechanism Between Micro‐organisms and Heavy Metals

References

6 Use of Energy Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence for Clinical Diagnosis

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Determination of Arsenic Concentration in Human Scalp Hair for the Diagnosis of Arsenicosis Disease. 6.2.1 Background

6.2.2 Role of EDXRF

6.2.3 Collection and Preparation of Hair Sample

6.2.4 Sample Preparation

6.2.5 Sample Analysis

6.2.6 Accuracy and Precision of the Method. 6.2.6.1 Construction of Calibration Curve

6.2.6.2 Measured Condition

6.3 Determination of Lead Concentrations in Human Whole Blood Using EDXRF Technique with Special Emphasis on Evaluating Association of Blood Lead Levels with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) 6.3.1 Background

6.3.2 Role of EDXRF in Diagnosis of Blood Lead Level

6.3.3 Collection of Blood Sample and Preparation

6.3.4 Preparation of Pellets from Powdered Sample

6.3.5 Sample Irradiation

6.3.6 Precision and Accuracy of the Result

6.4 Conclusion

References

7 Preparation of Sample for X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Solid Samples

7.2.1 Metallic Samples

7.3 Powder Samples

7.3.1 Grinding

7.3.2 Pelletizing

7.3.3 Fused Samples

7.4 Liquid Samples

7.5 Sample Preparation for Infinitely Thick and Intermediate Specimen

7.6 Sample Preparation of Animal Cells

7.7 Sample Preparation of Plant Section

7.8 Precautions During Sample Preparation and Handling

7.9 Conclusion and Future Directions

References

8 Elemental Analysis Using Synchrotron Radiation X ‐Ray Fluorescence

8.1 Importance of Trace and Ultra‐Trace Elemental Analysis

8.2 Various Methods for Trace Element Analysis

8.2.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) Method

8.2.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP‐MS) Method

8.2.3 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) Method

8.2.4 Accelerator Ion Beam Techniques

8.2.5 X‐Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Method

8.2.6 Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) Method

8.3 Comparison of TXRF and EDXRF Geometries

8.4 Synchrotron Radiation

8.4.1 Selection of a Laboratory X‐Ray Source for TXRF

8.5 Indus Synchrotron Radiation Facility

8.6 Microprobe X‐Ray Fluorescence Beamline (BL‐16)

8.6.1 Working Principles of a Double Crystal Monochromator (DCM) Optic

8.7 Experimental Facilities Available on the BL‐16

8.7.1 Normal EDXRF Measurements

8.7.2 Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) Measurements

8.7.3 Elemental Quantification

8.7.4 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Nanostructures

8.7.5 Microfocus X‐Ray Beam Mode

8.7.6 Micro‐Fluorescence Mapping

8.7.7 Micro‐XRF Mapping Analysis of Old Archeological Tile Samples

8.8 Discussion and Summary

References

9 Synchrotron Radiation Based Micro X‐Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy of Plant Materials

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Instrumentation and Sample Preparation

9.3 Case Studies. 9.3.1 Metal Tolerance Mechanisms in Hyperaccumulating Plants

9.3.2 Metal Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants and Fungi

9.3.3 Distribution of Mineral Nutrients and Potentially Toxic Elements in Grain

9.3.4 Investigation of Interactions between Plants and Engineered Nanomaterials

Acknowledgements

References

10 Micro X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Toxic Elements in Plants

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Advantages of XRF Technique for Plants Analysis

10.3 Preparation of Plant Samples for μ‐XRF Analysis

10.4 The Case Studies of Synchrotron μ‐XRF for Determination of Toxic Elements in Plants

10.4.1 Applications in Edible Plants

10.4.2 Applications in Accumulating Plants

10.4.3 Applications in Hyperaccumulator Plants

10.4.4 The Case Studies of Laboratory μ‐XRF to Determine Elements in Waterlogged Oenanthe javanica DC

10.5 Conclusion and Outlook

References

11 Micro X‐Ray Fluorescence Studies of Earthworm (Benthonic Fauna) in Soils and Sediments

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Sample Preparation Methods

11.3 Earthworms and Soil Ecosystem

11.3.1 Case 1‐Bioaccumulation of Arsenic (As) in Earthworms

11.3.2 Case 2‐Silver(Ag) Nanoparticles Localization in Earthworms

11.4 Overview

References

12 Synchronous Radiation X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Microelements in Biopsy Tissues

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Samples Preparation

12.3 Materials and Methods

12.4 SRXRF Measurements

12.5 SRXRF Biopsy Material of Living Organisms

12.5.1 The Elemental Composition of Derivatives of Human Epithelial Tissues

12.5.2 Dynamics of Derivatives of Epithelial Tissues, Human Hair and Nails

12.5.2.1 Dynamics of Derivatives of Epithelial Tissues, Human Hair, and Nails

12.6 Study of Elemental Composition and Inter‐Element Correlations in the Liver and Lungs of Animals with Food Obesity

12.7 Concluding Remarks

References

13 Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of some Biological Samples

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Trace Element Determinations in Marine Organisms by TXRF

13.3 Trace Element Determination in Blood Samples by TXRF

13.4 Analysis of Saliva and Oral Fluids by TXRF

13.5 TXRF Analysis of Hair Samples for Detection of Metal Poisoning and Other Forensic Applications

13.6 Kidney Stone Analysis by TXRF

13.7 Elemental Analysis of Cancerous and Normal Tissues by TXRF

13.8 TXRF Studies on Blood and Heart Tissues as Biomarkers of Radiation Dose

13.9 Urine Analysis by TXRF

13.10 Nail Analysis by TXRF

13.11 Analysis of Human Eye Lens and Aqueous Humor of Cataract Patients

13.12 Future Prospects for TXRF Analysis of Biological Samples

References

Notes

14 Recent Developments in X‐Ray Fluorescence for Characterization of Nano‐Structured Materials

14.1 Principles of GIXRF Analysis

14.1.1 Methodology

14.1.2 Phenomenon of Reflection and Refraction inside a Thin Film Medium

14.1.3 Calculation of Electric Field Intensity and Fluorescence Intensity

14.2 A Few Case Studies

14.2.1 Characterization of Ti/Co Bilayer Structures

14.3 Various Computational Tools (CATGIXRF Paper)

14.4 Structural Analysis of some Complex Nano‐Structures

14.4.1 Trilayer Thin Film Structure

14.4.2 Multilayer Thin Film Structure

14.4.3 Analysis of Nanoparticles

14.4.4 Determination of Size and Shape of the Nanoparticles

14.5 Characterization of Absorbed Impurities on Surfaces

14.5.1 Introduction to Float Glass

14.5.2 Problem of Tin Diffusion

14.5.3 Experimental Measurements

14.5.4 GIXRF Analysis

14.5.5 X‐Ray Reflectivity (XRR) Measurements

14.6 Discussion and Summary

References

15 Total‐Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Alcoholic and Non‐Alcoholic Beverages

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Features of Sample Preparation

15.2.1 Direct Analysis

15.2.2 Acid Digestion

15.3 Thin Layer Criterion

15.4 Quantitative Analysis

15.5 Angular Scanning

15.6 Absorption Effects

15.7 Method of Standard Addition

Acknowledgements

References

16 Trace Elements Analysis of Blood Samples and Serum Using Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Experimental

16.3 Sample Preparation

16.4 Applications

16.5 Conclusions

References

17 Basics and Fundamentals of X‐Rays

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Different X‐Ray Excitation Sources

17.3 X‐Ray Detectors

17.4 X‐Ray Absorption and Scattering

17.5 Quantization and Detection Limits of X‐Ray Fluorescence

17.6 Preventive Measures

References

18 General Principle, Procedures and Detectors of X‐Ray Fluorescence

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Basic Principle of X‐Ray Fluorescence. 18.2.1 Production of X‐Rays

18.2.2 Interaction of X‐Rays with Matter

18.3 Small Spot Instruments and Micro‐XRF

18.3.1 EDXRF Spectrometers with 2D Optics

18.3.2 EDXRF Spectrometers with 3D Optics

18.4 Different X‐Ray Optics Configurations for Elemental Imaging in 2D/3D Using μ‐XRF

18.5 Conclusion

References

19 Quantitative Analysis in X‐Ray Fluorescence System

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Components for the X‐Ray Spectrometry

19.3 Analytical Methods in X‐Ray Fluorescence

19.3.1 The Standard Addition and Dilution Methods

19.3.2 Thin Film Methods

19.3.3 Matrix‐Dilution Methods

19.3.4 Calibration Standardization

19.3.5 Internal Standardization

19.3.6 Standardization with Scattered X‐Rays

19.3.7 Experimental Correction

19.3.8 Mathematical Correction

19.4 Concluding Remarks

References

20 Electronics and Instrumentation for X‐Ray Fluorescence

20.1 Introduction

20.2 X‐Ray Sources

20.3 Solid‐State Detectors

20.4 Silicon Drift Detector

20.5 Noise and Readout Electronics

20.6 Signal Processing

20.7 Combination with Other Techniques

20.8 Conclusions

References

21 Energy Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Biological Materials

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Theoretical Basics of EDXRF. 21.2.1 X‐Ray Radiation

21.2.2 Interaction of X‐Rays with Matter

21.3 EDXRF Instrumentation

21.4 Quantification of EDXRF Spectra

21.5 Sampling and Sample Preparation

21.6 Case Studies. 21.6.1 Elemental Profiling for Ionomic Studies

21.6.2 Food Authenticity Studies

Acknowledgements

References

22 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Milk and Dairy Products

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Conventional XRF

22.3 Total‐reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence

Acknowledgements

References

23 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Medicinal Plants

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Issues Highlighted in Publications

23.3 XRF Specifications Used in Analysis of Medicinal Plants and Medicines

23.4 Procedures of Plant Sample Preparation

23.5 Interelement Effects, Account Ways

23.6 WDXRF Analysis of Siberian Violets

23.7 Concluding Remarks

References

24 X‐Ray Fluorescence Studies of Animal and Human Cell Biology

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Applications of XRF in Cell Biology

24.2.1 Measurement of Trace Elements, Contaminants and Toxins

24.2.2 Cellular Imaging and Measurement of Biomolecules

24.3 Conclusion

References

25 Toxic and Essential Elemental Studies of Human Organs Using X‐Ray Fluorescence

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Intracellular Trace Elements

25.2.1 Lead

25.2.2 Cadmium

25.2.3 Mercury

25.2.4 Iron

25.2.5 Iodine

25.2.6 Platinum

25.2.7 Gold

25.2.8 Zinc

25.2.9 Arsenic

25.3 Major Elements

25.3.1 Calcium

25.3.2 Potassium

25.3.3 Sodium

25.3.4 Magnesium

25.3.5 Sulfur

25.4 Biological Molecules

25.5 Non‐Alcoholic and Alcoholic Beverages (Water, Tea, Must, Coffee and Wine)

25.6 Vegetable and Aromatic Oils

25.7 Conclusion

References

26 X‐Ray Fluorescence for Rapid Detection of Uranium in Blood Extracted from Wounds

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Physical Properties of Uranium

26.3 Health Effects of Uranium Uptake

26.4 Current Uranium Contamination Inspection Methods

26.5 Usefulness of XRF Analysis in Uranium Determination

26.6 Examination of Blood Collection Materials

26.7 XRF Analysis of Simulated Uranium‐Contaminated Blood Collection Samples. 26.7.1 Sample Preparation

26.7.2 XRF Device and Measurement Conditions

26.7.3 Results of the XRF Measurements

26.7.4 Peak Fitting

26.7.5 Calibration Curve and Detection Limit

26.8 Summary

References

27 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Human Hair

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Human Hair

27.3 Methods and Materials. 27.3.1 Sample Preparation

27.3.1.1 Sampling

27.3.1.2 Washing

27.3.1.3 Drying

27.3.1.4 Grinding

27.3.1.5 Pelletizing and Special Preparations

27.3.1.6 Extraction/Dissolution

27.4 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis

27.4.1 EDXRF

27.4.2 TXRF

27.4.3 WDXRF

27.5 Correlation of Trace Elements in Hair

27.6 Conclusion

References

28 X‐Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry to Study Gallstones, Kidney Stones, Hair, Nails, Bones, Teeth and Cancerous Tissues

28.1 Introduction to Trace Mineral Elements in Biomedical Samples

28.2 Applications of XRF for Biological Specimens

28.2.1 XRF Applications to Calcified Tissues (Teeth and Bones)

28.2.2 XRF Applications for Rapid Analysis of Metallic Restorations

28.2.3 XRF Applications for Gallbladder and Kidney Stones Formed in Human Body

28.2.4 XRF Applications to Blood Samples for Trace Detection

28.2.5 XRF Applications to Healthy and Cancerous Tissue Samples

28.2.6 XRF Applications to Soft Tissues and Pathological Specimens (Urine, Hair, and Nails)

28.2.7 SRXRF Application to Biological Samples

28.3 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgement

References

29 Sampling and Sample Preparation for Chemical Analysis of Plants by Wavelength Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Sampling and Sample Preparation. 29.2.1 Sampling

29.2.2 Preparation of Plant Samples for Analysis

29.3 Method of Analysis: Wavelength Dispersion X‐Ray Fluorescence (WDXRF) Spectrometry

29.3.1 Sample Preparation for WDXRF Measurement

29.3.1.1 Matrix Effects

29.3.1.2 Mineralogical Structure and Bonding Effects

29.3.1.3 Particle Size

29.3.1.4 Preparation of Pellets

29.3.1.5 Preparation of Fused Beads

29.3.2 Wavelength‐Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence

29.3.2.1 Sources (X‐Ray Tubes)

29.3.2.2 Collimators and Masks

29.3.2.3 Dispersive Elements. 29.3.2.3.1 Crystals

29.3.2.3.2 Detectors

29.3.3 WDXRF Analysis. 29.3.3.1 Selection and Optimization of the Instrumental Conditions

29.3.3.1.1 Excitation

29.3.3.1.2 Scattering

29.3.3.1.3 Detection

29.3.3.2 Calibration

29.3.3.3 Reference Materials

29.3.4 Validation of the Methodology

29.3.4.1 Validation Using Reference Materials

29.3.4.2 Validation Using Independent Methods

References

30 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis in Medical Biology

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Role of XRF in Cancerous Diagnosis. 30.2.1 Metals and Metalloids in Biological Systems

30.2.2 X‐Ray Fluorescence Imaging

30.2.2.1 XRF Imaging of Toxic Elements

As Imaging

Hg Imaging

Pb Imaging

Co Imaging

Cr Imaging

30.2.2.2 XRF Imaging of Metals for Various Diseases. Imaging of Metals in Cancer Research

Imaging of Metals for Neurodegenerative Diseases

30.2.2.3 Pharmacology of Cobalt in Medicinal Biology

30.3 Conclusion and Future Prospects of XRF in Medical Biology

References

31 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis in Pharmacology

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Equipment Used and Procedures for Preparation of Samples for Analysis

31.3 Examples of Applications of XRF for Pharmaceutical Products Research

31.4 Conclusion

References

32 X‐Ray Fluorescence and State‐of‐the‐Art Related Techniques to the Study of Teeth, Calculus and Oral Tissues

32.1 Introduction

32.2 Conventional X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis

32.3 Synchrotron Radiation Induced XRF Analysis

32.4 Spatially‐Resolved XRF for Studies of Bonds between Tooth and Dental Calculus

32.5 Total Reflection of X‐Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) for Analysis of Metals in Oral Fluids of Patients with Dental Implants

32.6 EDIXS Microanalysis of the Local Structure of Calcium in Tooth Layers

References

33 Lab‐scale Wavelength Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer and Signal Processing Evaluation

33.1 Introduction

33.1.1 Photon‐Atom Interaction Processes

33.1.2 Atomic Inner‐Shell Photoionization

33.1.3 Inner‐Shell Vacancy Decay Processes

33.1.3.1 Radiative Transitions

33.1.3.2 Non‐Radiative Transitions

33.1.4 Physical Parameters Related to Inner‐Shell Vacancy Decay

33.1.4.1 Near‐Edge Processes Contributing to Absorption of Incident Photons

33.1.4.2 Single Scattering

33.1.4.3 Multiple Scattering

33.1.5 Scattering Processes. 33.1.5.1 Elastic Scattering

33.1.5.2 Form Factor Formalism

33.1.5.3 Inelastic Scattering

33.2 Fundamental and Layout. 33.2.1 Experimental Techniques for Investigation of the Photon‐Atom Interaction Processes

33.2.2 Photon Sources

33.2.3 Specimen Target

33.2.4 Radiation Detectors

33.2.5 WDXRF Spectrometer

33.2.6 Target Preparation

33.2.7 Detection System

33.2.8 Intensity Correction Method

33.2.9 Energy Resolution and Efficiency

33.3 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis

33.3.1 Sample Preparation for Calibration Curves

33.3.2 Sensitivity of WDXRF Instrument

33.3.3 Instrumental Limit of Detection

33.4 Applications. 33.4.1 Chemical Effects and Speciation in k or l X‐Ray Emission Lines

33.5 Conclusion and Prospects

Acknowledgment

References

34 Chemometric Processing of X‐Ray Fluorescence Data

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Principal Component Analysis

34.3 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis

34.4 Partial Least Squares (PLS)

34.5 Other Methods

References

35 X‐Ray Crystallography in Medicinal Biology

35.1 Introduction

35.2 Drug Design. 35.2.1 XRC in Antiparasitic Drugs

35.2.2 XRC and XRF in Anti‐Cancer and Anti‐Diabetic Drugs

35.3 Monitoring Changes in Concentrations of Trace Elements. 35.3.1 XRF and Autoimmune Diseases

35.3.2 XRC and XRF in Cardiac Function

35.3.3 XRC in Detection of Bone Loss

35.3.4 XRF in Elemental Analysis in Implants

35.3.5 XRF in Study of Pathological Specimens

35.3.6 XRF Use in Recognizing Dental Caries

35.3.7 XRF in Detection of Trace Elements

35.4 Conclusion

References

36 Historical Fundamentals of X‐Ray Instruments and Present Trends in Biological Science

36.1 Brief History of X‐Ray Fluorescence

36.2 Introduction

36.3 Nature of X‐Rays

36.3.1 Properties of X‐Rays

36.3.2 Hard and Soft X‐Rays

36.3.3 Continuous Spectrum

36.3.4 Characteristic X‐Ray Spectrum

36.4 Production of X‐Rays

36.4.1 Production by Electrons

36.4.2 Production in Lightning and Laboratory Discharges

36.4.3 Production by Fast Positive Ions

36.5 Interaction of X‐Rays with Matter

36.5.1 X‐Ray Absorption and Scattering

36.6 Role of X‐Rays in Biological Analysis

36.7 Different X‐Ray Excitation Sources

36.8 X‐Ray Detectors

36.8.1 Photographic Film

36.8.2 Semi‐Conductor Detectors

36.8.3 Gas‐Filled Detectors

36.9 Polarization of X‐Rays

36.10 Quantization and Detection Limits of X‐Rays

36.11 Preventative Measures

36.12 Concluding Remarks

References

37 X‐Ray Fluorescence Studies of Biological Objects in Mongolia

37.1 Introduction

37.2 Determination of Some Elements in Plant Materials of the Khuvsgul Lake Basin

37.2.1 Preparation of Plant Samples

37.2.2 Sample Preparation for Measurement

37.2.3 Measurements and Methods

37.2.4 Procedure of Analysis

37.3 Human Hair Studies in Mongolia

37.3.1 The Human Hair Study for Medicine of Mongolia

37.3.2 Distribution of Calcium Content in Mongolians' Hair

37.4 Application of X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis for Forensic Investigations in Mongolia

37.5 Determination of Some Trace Elements in Livestock Using XRF

37.6 Determination of Some Trace Elements in Foods Using XRF

Acknowledgements

References

38 Arsenic Analysis

38.1 Introduction

38.2 Arsenic Species

38.3 Gutzeit Method

38.4 Principles of HG‐AAS Arsenic Analysis

38.5 Problems in Yamauchi's Method. 38.5.1 Glass Test Tube

38.5.2 NaOH Decomposition

38.5.3 pH Values for Speciation

38.5.4 Detection Limit

38.6 Selective Excitation of SRXRF

38.7 Stray Light

38.8 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

References

39 X‐Ray Fluorescence: Current Trends and Future Scope

39.1 Introduction

39.2 Principle

39.3 X‐Ray Fluorescence. 39.3.1 Microanalysis

39.3.2 Particles Dispersive X‐Ray Spectroscopy

39.3.3 The Behavior of X‐Rays

39.3.4 X‐Ray Intensity

39.3.5 Process

39.3.6 Synchrotron XRF (SR‐XRF)

39.4 Application of X‐Ray Fluorescence Technique. 39.4.1 Pharmacological Action

39.4.2 XRF Soft Tissue and Pathological Samples Application

39.4.3 In Tooth Analysis

39.5 XRF Technique Used in Biology. 39.5.1 Detection of Metal Ion(s) 39.5.1.1 Role of Metals in Biology

39.6 Applications of XRF in the Study of Plant Physiology

39.6.1 Hyperaccumulating Plant

39.6.2 Accumulators and Hyper‐Sensors of Selenium

39.6.3 Accumulators and Hyperaccumulators of Arsenic

39.6.4 Accumulators and Hyperaccumulators of Cadmium

39.7 Application in Animal Biology and Medicinal Biology. 39.7.1 Application in Health Science

39.7.1.1 Mercury Toxicology

39.7.1.2 Arsenic Toxicology

39.7.1.3 Iatrogenic Toxic Metals

39.7.1.4 Neurodegenerative Ailments

39.8 Applications in Nanotechnology. 39.8.1 Potential Therapeutics and Xenobiotic Labels

39.9 Methodological Improvement

39.9.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging

39.9.2 Mass Spectrometry Imaging

39.10 Molecular Fluorescence Samples

39.10.1 Mercury

39.10.2 Copper

39.10.3 Zinc

39.11 Fourier Transform Infra‐red (FTIR) Spectroscopy

39.12 Novel X‐Ray Imaging Methods

39.13 Conclusion and Advances

References

Index. a

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Отрывок из книги

Edited by

Vivek Kumar Singh

.....

Liqiang Luo National Research Center of Geoanalysis Beijing China

Artem S. Maltsev Center for Geodynamycs and Geochronology Institute of the Earth’s Crust SB RAS Irkutsk Russia and Department of Analytical Chemistry Certification and Quality Management Kazan National Research Technological University Kazan Russia

.....

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Нет рецензий. Будьте первым, кто напишет рецензию на книгу X-Ray Fluorescence in Biological Sciences
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