Оглавление
Группа авторов. X-Ray Fluorescence in Biological Sciences
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
X‐Ray Fluorescence in Biological Sciences. Principles, Instrumentation, and Applications
List of Contributors
Preface
1 X‐Ray Fluorescence and Comparison with Other Analytical Methods (AAS, ICP‐AES, LA‐ICP‐MS, IC, LIBS, SEM‐EDS, and XRD)
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Analytical Capabilities of XRF and Micro‐XRF
1.2.1 Micro‐XRF
1.3 Comparison with Other Analytical Methods. 1.3.1 Overview
1.3.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Analysis
1.3.2.1 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP‐MS)
1.3.3 Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP‐AES)
1.3.4 Ion Chromatography (IC)
1.3.5 Laser‐Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS)
1.3.6 Proton‐Induced X‐Ray Emission (PIXE)
1.3.7 Scanning Electron Microscopy–Energy Dispersive X–Ray Spectroscopy (SEM‐EDS)
1.3.7.1 Differences in XRF and SEM‐EDS (Sample Handling, Experimental Conditions, Sample Stress, and Excitation Sources)
1.3.7.2 Combination of SEM‐EDS and μ‐XRF
1.4 Comparison of XRF and XRD
1.5 Comparison of XRF and Raman Spectroscopy
1.6 Conclusion and Prospects
References
2 X‐Ray Fluorescence for Multi‐elemental Analysis of Vegetation Samples
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Features and Analytical Capabilities of XRF Configurations used in Vegetation Sample Analysis
2.3 General Sample Treatment Procedures used for Vegetation Sample Analysis using XRF Techniques
2.4 Applications of XRF in the Field of Vegetation Samples Analysis. 2.4.1 Environmental Studies
2.4.2 Nutritional and Agronomic Studies
2.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Perspectives
References
3 X‐Ray Fluorescence Studies of Tea and Coffee
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Equipment Used
3.3 Preparation of Samples for Analysis
3.4 Examples of Practical Applications of XRF for Tea Research
3.5 Examples of Practical Applications of XRF for Coffee Research
3.6 Determination of the Elemental Composition of Krasnodar Tea Samples by TXRF and WDXRF
3.6.1 Instrumentation
3.6.2 Suspension Preparation
3.6.3 Infusion Preparation
3.6.4 Acid Digestion
3.6.5 Preparation of Samples for WDXRF
3.6.6 Results and Discussion
3.7 Interelement Effects and Procedures of their Accounting
3.8 Conclusion
References
4 Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence and it’s Suitability for Biological Samples
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Advantages and Limitations of conventional XRF for Elemental Determinations in Biological Systems
4.3 Factors Limiting the Application of XRF for Biological Sample Analysis
4.4 Modifying XRF to Make it Suitable for Elemental Determinations at Trace Levels: Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) Spectrometry
4.4.1 Principles of TXRF
4.4.2 Theoretical Considerations
4.4.3 TXRF Instrumentation for Trace Element Determination
4.4.4 Sample Preparation for TXRF Analysis
4.5 Suitability of TXRF for Elemental Analysis in Biological Samples
References
Note
5 Micro X‐Ray Fluorescence and X‐Ray Absorption near Edge Structure Analysis of Heavy Metals in Micro‐organism
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Effects of Heavy Metals on Microbial Growth
5.3 Application of μ‐XRF and XAS in Understanding the Cycling of Elements Driven by Micro‐organism
5.4 Application of μ‐XRF and XAS in Understanding the Transformation of Elements Driven by Micro‐organisms
5.5 Application of μ‐XRF and XAS in Understanding the Mechanism of Using Micro‐organisms in Bioremediation
5.6 The Advantage of Using μ‐XRF and XAS to Explore the Interaction Mechanism Between Micro‐organisms and Heavy Metals
References
6 Use of Energy Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence for Clinical Diagnosis
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Determination of Arsenic Concentration in Human Scalp Hair for the Diagnosis of Arsenicosis Disease. 6.2.1 Background
6.2.2 Role of EDXRF
6.2.3 Collection and Preparation of Hair Sample
6.2.4 Sample Preparation
6.2.5 Sample Analysis
6.2.6 Accuracy and Precision of the Method. 6.2.6.1 Construction of Calibration Curve
6.2.6.2 Measured Condition
6.3 Determination of Lead Concentrations in Human Whole Blood Using EDXRF Technique with Special Emphasis on Evaluating Association of Blood Lead Levels with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) 6.3.1 Background
6.3.2 Role of EDXRF in Diagnosis of Blood Lead Level
6.3.3 Collection of Blood Sample and Preparation
6.3.4 Preparation of Pellets from Powdered Sample
6.3.5 Sample Irradiation
6.3.6 Precision and Accuracy of the Result
6.4 Conclusion
References
7 Preparation of Sample for X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Solid Samples
7.2.1 Metallic Samples
7.3 Powder Samples
7.3.1 Grinding
7.3.2 Pelletizing
7.3.3 Fused Samples
7.4 Liquid Samples
7.5 Sample Preparation for Infinitely Thick and Intermediate Specimen
7.6 Sample Preparation of Animal Cells
7.7 Sample Preparation of Plant Section
7.8 Precautions During Sample Preparation and Handling
7.9 Conclusion and Future Directions
References
8 Elemental Analysis Using Synchrotron Radiation X ‐Ray Fluorescence
8.1 Importance of Trace and Ultra‐Trace Elemental Analysis
8.2 Various Methods for Trace Element Analysis
8.2.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) Method
8.2.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP‐MS) Method
8.2.3 Neutron Activation Analysis (NAA) Method
8.2.4 Accelerator Ion Beam Techniques
8.2.5 X‐Ray Fluorescence (XRF) Method
8.2.6 Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) Method
8.3 Comparison of TXRF and EDXRF Geometries
8.4 Synchrotron Radiation
8.4.1 Selection of a Laboratory X‐Ray Source for TXRF
8.5 Indus Synchrotron Radiation Facility
8.6 Microprobe X‐Ray Fluorescence Beamline (BL‐16)
8.6.1 Working Principles of a Double Crystal Monochromator (DCM) Optic
8.7 Experimental Facilities Available on the BL‐16
8.7.1 Normal EDXRF Measurements
8.7.2 Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) Measurements
8.7.3 Elemental Quantification
8.7.4 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Nanostructures
8.7.5 Microfocus X‐Ray Beam Mode
8.7.6 Micro‐Fluorescence Mapping
8.7.7 Micro‐XRF Mapping Analysis of Old Archeological Tile Samples
8.8 Discussion and Summary
References
9 Synchrotron Radiation Based Micro X‐Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy of Plant Materials
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Instrumentation and Sample Preparation
9.3 Case Studies. 9.3.1 Metal Tolerance Mechanisms in Hyperaccumulating Plants
9.3.2 Metal Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants and Fungi
9.3.3 Distribution of Mineral Nutrients and Potentially Toxic Elements in Grain
9.3.4 Investigation of Interactions between Plants and Engineered Nanomaterials
Acknowledgements
References
10 Micro X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Toxic Elements in Plants
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Advantages of XRF Technique for Plants Analysis
10.3 Preparation of Plant Samples for μ‐XRF Analysis
10.4 The Case Studies of Synchrotron μ‐XRF for Determination of Toxic Elements in Plants
10.4.1 Applications in Edible Plants
10.4.2 Applications in Accumulating Plants
10.4.3 Applications in Hyperaccumulator Plants
10.4.4 The Case Studies of Laboratory μ‐XRF to Determine Elements in Waterlogged Oenanthe javanica DC
10.5 Conclusion and Outlook
References
11 Micro X‐Ray Fluorescence Studies of Earthworm (Benthonic Fauna) in Soils and Sediments
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Sample Preparation Methods
11.3 Earthworms and Soil Ecosystem
11.3.1 Case 1‐Bioaccumulation of Arsenic (As) in Earthworms
11.3.2 Case 2‐Silver(Ag) Nanoparticles Localization in Earthworms
11.4 Overview
References
12 Synchronous Radiation X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Microelements in Biopsy Tissues
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Samples Preparation
12.3 Materials and Methods
12.4 SRXRF Measurements
12.5 SRXRF Biopsy Material of Living Organisms
12.5.1 The Elemental Composition of Derivatives of Human Epithelial Tissues
12.5.2 Dynamics of Derivatives of Epithelial Tissues, Human Hair and Nails
12.5.2.1 Dynamics of Derivatives of Epithelial Tissues, Human Hair, and Nails
12.6 Study of Elemental Composition and Inter‐Element Correlations in the Liver and Lungs of Animals with Food Obesity
12.7 Concluding Remarks
References
13 Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of some Biological Samples
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Trace Element Determinations in Marine Organisms by TXRF
13.3 Trace Element Determination in Blood Samples by TXRF
13.4 Analysis of Saliva and Oral Fluids by TXRF
13.5 TXRF Analysis of Hair Samples for Detection of Metal Poisoning and Other Forensic Applications
13.6 Kidney Stone Analysis by TXRF
13.7 Elemental Analysis of Cancerous and Normal Tissues by TXRF
13.8 TXRF Studies on Blood and Heart Tissues as Biomarkers of Radiation Dose
13.9 Urine Analysis by TXRF
13.10 Nail Analysis by TXRF
13.11 Analysis of Human Eye Lens and Aqueous Humor of Cataract Patients
13.12 Future Prospects for TXRF Analysis of Biological Samples
References
Notes
14 Recent Developments in X‐Ray Fluorescence for Characterization of Nano‐Structured Materials
14.1 Principles of GIXRF Analysis
14.1.1 Methodology
14.1.2 Phenomenon of Reflection and Refraction inside a Thin Film Medium
14.1.3 Calculation of Electric Field Intensity and Fluorescence Intensity
14.2 A Few Case Studies
14.2.1 Characterization of Ti/Co Bilayer Structures
14.3 Various Computational Tools (CATGIXRF Paper)
14.4 Structural Analysis of some Complex Nano‐Structures
14.4.1 Trilayer Thin Film Structure
14.4.2 Multilayer Thin Film Structure
14.4.3 Analysis of Nanoparticles
14.4.4 Determination of Size and Shape of the Nanoparticles
14.5 Characterization of Absorbed Impurities on Surfaces
14.5.1 Introduction to Float Glass
14.5.2 Problem of Tin Diffusion
14.5.3 Experimental Measurements
14.5.4 GIXRF Analysis
14.5.5 X‐Ray Reflectivity (XRR) Measurements
14.6 Discussion and Summary
References
15 Total‐Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Alcoholic and Non‐Alcoholic Beverages
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Features of Sample Preparation
15.2.1 Direct Analysis
15.2.2 Acid Digestion
15.3 Thin Layer Criterion
15.4 Quantitative Analysis
15.5 Angular Scanning
15.6 Absorption Effects
15.7 Method of Standard Addition
Acknowledgements
References
16 Trace Elements Analysis of Blood Samples and Serum Using Total Reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Experimental
16.3 Sample Preparation
16.4 Applications
16.5 Conclusions
References
17 Basics and Fundamentals of X‐Rays
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Different X‐Ray Excitation Sources
17.3 X‐Ray Detectors
17.4 X‐Ray Absorption and Scattering
17.5 Quantization and Detection Limits of X‐Ray Fluorescence
17.6 Preventive Measures
References
18 General Principle, Procedures and Detectors of X‐Ray Fluorescence
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Basic Principle of X‐Ray Fluorescence. 18.2.1 Production of X‐Rays
18.2.2 Interaction of X‐Rays with Matter
18.3 Small Spot Instruments and Micro‐XRF
18.3.1 EDXRF Spectrometers with 2D Optics
18.3.2 EDXRF Spectrometers with 3D Optics
18.4 Different X‐Ray Optics Configurations for Elemental Imaging in 2D/3D Using μ‐XRF
18.5 Conclusion
References
19 Quantitative Analysis in X‐Ray Fluorescence System
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Components for the X‐Ray Spectrometry
19.3 Analytical Methods in X‐Ray Fluorescence
19.3.1 The Standard Addition and Dilution Methods
19.3.2 Thin Film Methods
19.3.3 Matrix‐Dilution Methods
19.3.4 Calibration Standardization
19.3.5 Internal Standardization
19.3.6 Standardization with Scattered X‐Rays
19.3.7 Experimental Correction
19.3.8 Mathematical Correction
19.4 Concluding Remarks
References
20 Electronics and Instrumentation for X‐Ray Fluorescence
20.1 Introduction
20.2 X‐Ray Sources
20.3 Solid‐State Detectors
20.4 Silicon Drift Detector
20.5 Noise and Readout Electronics
20.6 Signal Processing
20.7 Combination with Other Techniques
20.8 Conclusions
References
21 Energy Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Biological Materials
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Theoretical Basics of EDXRF. 21.2.1 X‐Ray Radiation
21.2.2 Interaction of X‐Rays with Matter
21.3 EDXRF Instrumentation
21.4 Quantification of EDXRF Spectra
21.5 Sampling and Sample Preparation
21.6 Case Studies. 21.6.1 Elemental Profiling for Ionomic Studies
21.6.2 Food Authenticity Studies
Acknowledgements
References
22 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Milk and Dairy Products
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Conventional XRF
22.3 Total‐reflection X‐Ray Fluorescence
Acknowledgements
References
23 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Medicinal Plants
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Issues Highlighted in Publications
23.3 XRF Specifications Used in Analysis of Medicinal Plants and Medicines
23.4 Procedures of Plant Sample Preparation
23.5 Interelement Effects, Account Ways
23.6 WDXRF Analysis of Siberian Violets
23.7 Concluding Remarks
References
24 X‐Ray Fluorescence Studies of Animal and Human Cell Biology
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Applications of XRF in Cell Biology
24.2.1 Measurement of Trace Elements, Contaminants and Toxins
24.2.2 Cellular Imaging and Measurement of Biomolecules
24.3 Conclusion
References
25 Toxic and Essential Elemental Studies of Human Organs Using X‐Ray Fluorescence
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Intracellular Trace Elements
25.2.1 Lead
25.2.2 Cadmium
25.2.3 Mercury
25.2.4 Iron
25.2.5 Iodine
25.2.6 Platinum
25.2.7 Gold
25.2.8 Zinc
25.2.9 Arsenic
25.3 Major Elements
25.3.1 Calcium
25.3.2 Potassium
25.3.3 Sodium
25.3.4 Magnesium
25.3.5 Sulfur
25.4 Biological Molecules
25.5 Non‐Alcoholic and Alcoholic Beverages (Water, Tea, Must, Coffee and Wine)
25.6 Vegetable and Aromatic Oils
25.7 Conclusion
References
26 X‐Ray Fluorescence for Rapid Detection of Uranium in Blood Extracted from Wounds
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Physical Properties of Uranium
26.3 Health Effects of Uranium Uptake
26.4 Current Uranium Contamination Inspection Methods
26.5 Usefulness of XRF Analysis in Uranium Determination
26.6 Examination of Blood Collection Materials
26.7 XRF Analysis of Simulated Uranium‐Contaminated Blood Collection Samples. 26.7.1 Sample Preparation
26.7.2 XRF Device and Measurement Conditions
26.7.3 Results of the XRF Measurements
26.7.4 Peak Fitting
26.7.5 Calibration Curve and Detection Limit
26.8 Summary
References
27 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis of Human Hair
27.1 Introduction
27.2 Human Hair
27.3 Methods and Materials. 27.3.1 Sample Preparation
27.3.1.1 Sampling
27.3.1.2 Washing
27.3.1.3 Drying
27.3.1.4 Grinding
27.3.1.5 Pelletizing and Special Preparations
27.3.1.6 Extraction/Dissolution
27.4 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis
27.4.1 EDXRF
27.4.2 TXRF
27.4.3 WDXRF
27.5 Correlation of Trace Elements in Hair
27.6 Conclusion
References
28 X‐Ray Fluorescence Spectrometry to Study Gallstones, Kidney Stones, Hair, Nails, Bones, Teeth and Cancerous Tissues
28.1 Introduction to Trace Mineral Elements in Biomedical Samples
28.2 Applications of XRF for Biological Specimens
28.2.1 XRF Applications to Calcified Tissues (Teeth and Bones)
28.2.2 XRF Applications for Rapid Analysis of Metallic Restorations
28.2.3 XRF Applications for Gallbladder and Kidney Stones Formed in Human Body
28.2.4 XRF Applications to Blood Samples for Trace Detection
28.2.5 XRF Applications to Healthy and Cancerous Tissue Samples
28.2.6 XRF Applications to Soft Tissues and Pathological Specimens (Urine, Hair, and Nails)
28.2.7 SRXRF Application to Biological Samples
28.3 Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgement
References
29 Sampling and Sample Preparation for Chemical Analysis of Plants by Wavelength Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Sampling and Sample Preparation. 29.2.1 Sampling
29.2.2 Preparation of Plant Samples for Analysis
29.3 Method of Analysis: Wavelength Dispersion X‐Ray Fluorescence (WDXRF) Spectrometry
29.3.1 Sample Preparation for WDXRF Measurement
29.3.1.1 Matrix Effects
29.3.1.2 Mineralogical Structure and Bonding Effects
29.3.1.3 Particle Size
29.3.1.4 Preparation of Pellets
29.3.1.5 Preparation of Fused Beads
29.3.2 Wavelength‐Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence
29.3.2.1 Sources (X‐Ray Tubes)
29.3.2.2 Collimators and Masks
29.3.2.3 Dispersive Elements. 29.3.2.3.1 Crystals
29.3.2.3.2 Detectors
29.3.3 WDXRF Analysis. 29.3.3.1 Selection and Optimization of the Instrumental Conditions
29.3.3.1.1 Excitation
29.3.3.1.2 Scattering
29.3.3.1.3 Detection
29.3.3.2 Calibration
29.3.3.3 Reference Materials
29.3.4 Validation of the Methodology
29.3.4.1 Validation Using Reference Materials
29.3.4.2 Validation Using Independent Methods
References
30 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis in Medical Biology
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Role of XRF in Cancerous Diagnosis. 30.2.1 Metals and Metalloids in Biological Systems
30.2.2 X‐Ray Fluorescence Imaging
30.2.2.1 XRF Imaging of Toxic Elements
As Imaging
Hg Imaging
Pb Imaging
Co Imaging
Cr Imaging
30.2.2.2 XRF Imaging of Metals for Various Diseases. Imaging of Metals in Cancer Research
Imaging of Metals for Neurodegenerative Diseases
30.2.2.3 Pharmacology of Cobalt in Medicinal Biology
30.3 Conclusion and Future Prospects of XRF in Medical Biology
References
31 X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis in Pharmacology
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Equipment Used and Procedures for Preparation of Samples for Analysis
31.3 Examples of Applications of XRF for Pharmaceutical Products Research
31.4 Conclusion
References
32 X‐Ray Fluorescence and State‐of‐the‐Art Related Techniques to the Study of Teeth, Calculus and Oral Tissues
32.1 Introduction
32.2 Conventional X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis
32.3 Synchrotron Radiation Induced XRF Analysis
32.4 Spatially‐Resolved XRF for Studies of Bonds between Tooth and Dental Calculus
32.5 Total Reflection of X‐Ray Fluorescence (TXRF) for Analysis of Metals in Oral Fluids of Patients with Dental Implants
32.6 EDIXS Microanalysis of the Local Structure of Calcium in Tooth Layers
References
33 Lab‐scale Wavelength Dispersive X‐Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer and Signal Processing Evaluation
33.1 Introduction
33.1.1 Photon‐Atom Interaction Processes
33.1.2 Atomic Inner‐Shell Photoionization
33.1.3 Inner‐Shell Vacancy Decay Processes
33.1.3.1 Radiative Transitions
33.1.3.2 Non‐Radiative Transitions
33.1.4 Physical Parameters Related to Inner‐Shell Vacancy Decay
33.1.4.1 Near‐Edge Processes Contributing to Absorption of Incident Photons
33.1.4.2 Single Scattering
33.1.4.3 Multiple Scattering
33.1.5 Scattering Processes. 33.1.5.1 Elastic Scattering
33.1.5.2 Form Factor Formalism
33.1.5.3 Inelastic Scattering
33.2 Fundamental and Layout. 33.2.1 Experimental Techniques for Investigation of the Photon‐Atom Interaction Processes
33.2.2 Photon Sources
33.2.3 Specimen Target
33.2.4 Radiation Detectors
33.2.5 WDXRF Spectrometer
33.2.6 Target Preparation
33.2.7 Detection System
33.2.8 Intensity Correction Method
33.2.9 Energy Resolution and Efficiency
33.3 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis
33.3.1 Sample Preparation for Calibration Curves
33.3.2 Sensitivity of WDXRF Instrument
33.3.3 Instrumental Limit of Detection
33.4 Applications. 33.4.1 Chemical Effects and Speciation in k or l X‐Ray Emission Lines
33.5 Conclusion and Prospects
Acknowledgment
References
34 Chemometric Processing of X‐Ray Fluorescence Data
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Principal Component Analysis
34.3 Hierarchical Cluster Analysis
34.4 Partial Least Squares (PLS)
34.5 Other Methods
References
35 X‐Ray Crystallography in Medicinal Biology
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Drug Design. 35.2.1 XRC in Antiparasitic Drugs
35.2.2 XRC and XRF in Anti‐Cancer and Anti‐Diabetic Drugs
35.3 Monitoring Changes in Concentrations of Trace Elements. 35.3.1 XRF and Autoimmune Diseases
35.3.2 XRC and XRF in Cardiac Function
35.3.3 XRC in Detection of Bone Loss
35.3.4 XRF in Elemental Analysis in Implants
35.3.5 XRF in Study of Pathological Specimens
35.3.6 XRF Use in Recognizing Dental Caries
35.3.7 XRF in Detection of Trace Elements
35.4 Conclusion
References
36 Historical Fundamentals of X‐Ray Instruments and Present Trends in Biological Science
36.1 Brief History of X‐Ray Fluorescence
36.2 Introduction
36.3 Nature of X‐Rays
36.3.1 Properties of X‐Rays
36.3.2 Hard and Soft X‐Rays
36.3.3 Continuous Spectrum
36.3.4 Characteristic X‐Ray Spectrum
36.4 Production of X‐Rays
36.4.1 Production by Electrons
36.4.2 Production in Lightning and Laboratory Discharges
36.4.3 Production by Fast Positive Ions
36.5 Interaction of X‐Rays with Matter
36.5.1 X‐Ray Absorption and Scattering
36.6 Role of X‐Rays in Biological Analysis
36.7 Different X‐Ray Excitation Sources
36.8 X‐Ray Detectors
36.8.1 Photographic Film
36.8.2 Semi‐Conductor Detectors
36.8.3 Gas‐Filled Detectors
36.9 Polarization of X‐Rays
36.10 Quantization and Detection Limits of X‐Rays
36.11 Preventative Measures
36.12 Concluding Remarks
References
37 X‐Ray Fluorescence Studies of Biological Objects in Mongolia
37.1 Introduction
37.2 Determination of Some Elements in Plant Materials of the Khuvsgul Lake Basin
37.2.1 Preparation of Plant Samples
37.2.2 Sample Preparation for Measurement
37.2.3 Measurements and Methods
37.2.4 Procedure of Analysis
37.3 Human Hair Studies in Mongolia
37.3.1 The Human Hair Study for Medicine of Mongolia
37.3.2 Distribution of Calcium Content in Mongolians' Hair
37.4 Application of X‐Ray Fluorescence Analysis for Forensic Investigations in Mongolia
37.5 Determination of Some Trace Elements in Livestock Using XRF
37.6 Determination of Some Trace Elements in Foods Using XRF
Acknowledgements
References
38 Arsenic Analysis
38.1 Introduction
38.2 Arsenic Species
38.3 Gutzeit Method
38.4 Principles of HG‐AAS Arsenic Analysis
38.5 Problems in Yamauchi's Method. 38.5.1 Glass Test Tube
38.5.2 NaOH Decomposition
38.5.3 pH Values for Speciation
38.5.4 Detection Limit
38.6 Selective Excitation of SRXRF
38.7 Stray Light
38.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References
39 X‐Ray Fluorescence: Current Trends and Future Scope
39.1 Introduction
39.2 Principle
39.3 X‐Ray Fluorescence. 39.3.1 Microanalysis
39.3.2 Particles Dispersive X‐Ray Spectroscopy
39.3.3 The Behavior of X‐Rays
39.3.4 X‐Ray Intensity
39.3.5 Process
39.3.6 Synchrotron XRF (SR‐XRF)
39.4 Application of X‐Ray Fluorescence Technique. 39.4.1 Pharmacological Action
39.4.2 XRF Soft Tissue and Pathological Samples Application
39.4.3 In Tooth Analysis
39.5 XRF Technique Used in Biology. 39.5.1 Detection of Metal Ion(s) 39.5.1.1 Role of Metals in Biology
39.6 Applications of XRF in the Study of Plant Physiology
39.6.1 Hyperaccumulating Plant
39.6.2 Accumulators and Hyper‐Sensors of Selenium
39.6.3 Accumulators and Hyperaccumulators of Arsenic
39.6.4 Accumulators and Hyperaccumulators of Cadmium
39.7 Application in Animal Biology and Medicinal Biology. 39.7.1 Application in Health Science
39.7.1.1 Mercury Toxicology
39.7.1.2 Arsenic Toxicology
39.7.1.3 Iatrogenic Toxic Metals
39.7.1.4 Neurodegenerative Ailments
39.8 Applications in Nanotechnology. 39.8.1 Potential Therapeutics and Xenobiotic Labels
39.9 Methodological Improvement
39.9.1 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
39.9.2 Mass Spectrometry Imaging
39.10 Molecular Fluorescence Samples
39.10.1 Mercury
39.10.2 Copper
39.10.3 Zinc
39.11 Fourier Transform Infra‐red (FTIR) Spectroscopy
39.12 Novel X‐Ray Imaging Methods
39.13 Conclusion and Advances
References
Index. a
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