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Группа авторов. The Science of Reading
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
The Science of Reading : A Handbook
List of Contributors
Preface
Acknowledgments
PART I Word Recognition
References
CHAPTER ONE Progress in Reading Science:Word Identification, Comprehension, and Universal Perspectives
Reading and Reading Science in Historical Context
Advance 1: The Word‐identification System in Skilled Alphabetic Reading. Visual processing and models of eye movements
Orthographic processing and models of word identification
From word superiority to interactive activation
The lexicon and how to get there from an orthographic string
Phonology in skilled word identification
What have we learned about word reading from neuroimaging?
Disruptions in the word‐identification system
Advance 2. Comprehending while Reading
From global top‐down structures to actual comprehension
Text comprehension from the bottom up
The situation model: Knowledge and inferences
Sentences
Incremental comprehension: Integration and prediction
What neuroimaging studies add to comprehension research
Disruptions in the reading comprehension system
Advance 3. Toward a More Universal Science of Reading
The brain’s reading network (revisited)
Disruptions in the word‐identification system (revisited)
Concluding Reflections: Learning to Read and Reading Pedagogy
The experience‐based shift in word reading
Teaching reading
A final reflection
References
Notes
CHAPTER TWO Models of Word Reading :What Have We Learned?
Reading Aloud: Accounting for Basic Phenomena
Simulations of Behavioral Studies: What Did They Show? Regularity effects
Consistency effects
Nonword Pronunciation
Nonword consistency effects
Relative difficulty of words and nonwords
Length effects for words versus nonwords
Semantic effects on word naming
Summary
Hybrid Models
Learning to Read
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
CHAPTER THREE Word Recognition I :Visual and Orthographic Processing
Letter‐Based Word Recognition
Letter perception
Identifying letters in letter strings
Letter positions
Orthographic Processing and Word Recognition
Visual factors
Encoding letter‐order for word identification
Letter location versus letter order
Effects of the number and frequency of orthographically similar words
Bridging the Gap with Sentence Reading
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Notes
CHAPTER FOUR Word Recognition II:Phonological Coding in Reading
Evidence that Phonology Is Involved in Silent Reading
Reading without phonology?
Phonology Activation: Addressed or Assembled?
Phonology in words with inconsistent mappings
Is there need for an orthographic code in visual word recognition?
Computational Models of Visual Word Recognition
The Dual Route Cascaded (DRC) model
The CDP+ model
Triangle model
Phonology, Reading, and Neuroscientific Findings
Conclusions
References
CHAPTER FIVE Word Recognition III:Morphological Processing
Morphemes as “Islands of Regularity”
Morphology and the Spelling‐Meaning Mapping
Morphological Analysis in Skilled Reading
Morpheme frequency effects
Morpheme interference effects
Morphological priming effects
Theoretical Accounts of Morphological Processing
Mechanisms for Acquiring Morphological Knowledge
Conclusions and Emerging Questions
References
Note
PART II Learning to Read and Spell
References
CHAPTER SIX The Foundations of Literacy
Precursors to Literacy
Language Input
The Home Literacy Environment
Shared book reading
Parental scaffolding of print knowledge
The Limiting Environment
Socioeconomic status (SES)
Family beliefs and expectations
Family risk of dyslexia
Family health factors
Complex Linguistic Contexts
Summary and Conclusions
References
CHAPTER SEVEN Learning to Read Words
What Needs to Be Learned for Skilled Word Reading?
Sublexical‐Level Learning. Learning about letters
Mapping sublexical orthographic units onto sounds
Lexical‐Level Learning
Commencing lexical‐level learning: The self‐teaching hypothesis
Building lexical‐level learning through experience
Experience of the orthographic context
Experience of the semantic context
Morphology: Connecting print and meaning
Interactions between Sublexical and Lexical Learning
Interactive processes in a self‐teaching context
Interactive processes prior to first exposure: Orthographic skeletons
Conclusions and Future Directions
Acknowledgments
References
CHAPTER EIGHT Learning to Spell Words
Writing Systems
Elements of Children’s Spelling Development
Early developments
Prephonological writing
Phonological writing
Beyond Simple Phonological Patterns
Word position and surrounding letters
Morphology and etymology
Children’s Spelling in the Digital Age
Theories of Spelling Development
Spelling and Developmental Disabilities
Implications for Instruction
Future Directions
References
CHAPTER NINE Individual Differences in Learning to Read Words
Methodological Approaches
Concurrent Prediction
Dominance analysis
Quantile regression
Longitudinal analyses
Causal modeling
Moderation analysis
Mediation analysis
Explanatory Item Response Models (EIRMs)
Child‐ and Word‐Level Predictors of Individual Differences
Child‐level predictors
Set for variability
Statistical learning
Visual attention span
Text crowding
Print exposure
Reliance on alternative pathways
Word‐Level Predictors
Semantic predictors
Word consistency/transparency
Context‐dependent word effects
Child‐by‐Word Predictors
Grapheme‐phoneme knowledge
Word familiarity
Orthographic choice
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Note
CHAPTER TEN Teaching Children to Read
How Best to Teach Decoding in Whole‐Class Settings? The challenges of whole‐class delivery
Professional development for teachers
Issues of implementation
Theoretically motivated approaches to teaching of reading
A summary of effective evidence‐based whole‐class teaching
Teaching Children with Reading Difficulties. How best to teach decoding skills to children with dyslexia?
How important is the content and intensity of programs?
Promoting phoneme awareness and lexical strategies
Teaching about morphemes
A summary of effective evidence‐based teaching for dyslexia
Teaching oral language and listening comprehension
A summary of effective evidence‐based teaching for language comprehension
Conclusions
References
PART III Reading Comprehension
References
CHAPTER ELEVEN Reading Comprehension I:Discourse
A Brief History of Models of Discourse Comprehension
Semantic relations
Network representations
Inferences and the construction of meaning
Combining online processes and offline representations
From single text to multiple texts
A Comprehensive Model of Discourse Comprehension
The role and nature of inferential processes
Standards of coherence: Readers’ criteria for comprehension
The influence of reader characteristics on comprehension
The emerging mental representation
Situation model as constructed representation
Reciprocal relations between inferential processes and mental representation
Current Research Issues
Validation
Standards of coherence
Updating the emerging representation
Coherence across multiple texts
Reading in digital contexts
The relation between text comprehension and the processing of words and sentences
Concluding Remarks
References
Note
CHAPTER TWELVE Reading Comprehension II:Sentence Processing
Eye Movements and Reading
Computational models of eye movement control during sentence comprehension
Factors influencing word identification during reading
The interplay of parafoveal and foveal processing: parafoveal‐on‐foveal effects
The interplay of foveal and parafoveal processing: foveal load effects
The interplay of sentential context and parafoveal semantic information
The interplay of sentential context and parafoveal syntactic information
Beyond individual words: Computation of dependencies between words
Syntactic processing
Bayesian reading and anticipatory processing
Children’s sentence comprehension: A developmental perspective
Development of basic eye movement behavior in reading
Linguistic processing in reading development
Parafoveal processing in reading development
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
CHAPTER THIRTEEN Modeling the Development of Reading Comprehension
Theoretical Foundations for Reading Comprehension Development
Understanding the Development of Reading Comprehension – Methodological Considerations
Understanding the Development of Reading Comprehension – What Do We Know?
Is the Simple View of Reading Too Simple?
Reading fluency – a bridge between decoding and comprehension?
Inference skills
Morphology
Executive functioning. Executive functions
Working memory
Metacognitive strategies and comprehension monitoring
Motivation
The Simple View of Reading – Simple but Complex
Relationships between Longitudinal Studies and Theories of Reading Development
Future Directions
References
CHAPTER FOURTEEN Children’s Reading Comprehension Difficulties
A Framework for the Study of Reading Comprehension Difficulties
Identification and Prevalence of Poor Comprehenders
The Identification of Poor Comprehenders: Variation in Selection and Group Matching
The Measurement of Reading Comprehension: The Nature and Effect of Differences among (Standardized) Assessments
Sources of Reading Comprehension Difficulty
Word‐identification knowledge and processes
Oral language knowledge
Higher‐level language processes
Executive functions, working memory, and attentional resources
General knowledge
The Dynamics of Language and Literacy Development over Time
Conclusions and Future Directions
References
PART IV Reading in Different Languages
References
CHAPTER FIFTEEN Reading and Reading Disorders in Alphabetic Orthographies
Characteristics of Alphabetic Orthographies
The Alphabetic Principle
Complexity
Consistency
Models of Word Reading
Skilled Word Reading in Alphabetic Orthographies
Individual differences in word reading in adults
Summary
Reading Development in Alphabetic Orthographies
Cross‐linguistic differences in the development of word‐level skills
The triple foundation of word reading and spelling skills
Predictors of word‐level literacy skills across alphabetic orthographies
Cross‐sectional studies
Longitudinal studies
Meta analyses and systematic reviews of studies of typical and reading disordered alphabetic literacy development
Summary of word‐reading development
Looking beyond word‐reading development
Concluding remarks on the universals and specifics of reading in alphabetic orthographies
References
CHAPTER SIXTEEN Reading and Reading Disorders in Chinese
Chinese Language(s)
Chinese Script(s)
All Chinese Is Not Alike
Predictors of Individual Differences in Learning to Read
Phonological skills
Orthographic skills
Morphological awareness
Semantic, syntactic, and discourse skills
Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN)
Visual skills
Spelling Skills
Instruction and Remediation for Word Recognition
Reading Comprehension in Chinese
Conclusions and Next Steps
Correspondence
Acknowledgments
References
CHAPTER SEVENTEEN Reading the Akshara Writing System
The Akshara Writing System. Characteristics of akshara
Orthographic learning in akshara systems
Inventory size and orthographic learning
Reading Development
Orthography‐phonology linkages
Intra‐symbol features
Reading Development: Word Decoding
Word decoding and reading comprehension
Word decoding and writing routines
Conclusions
References
PART V Disorders of Reading
References
CHAPTER EIGHTEEN Acquired Disorders of Reading and Writing
Acquired Disorders of Reading and Writing
Pure Alexia/Letter‐by‐Letter Reading. Principle features
Neuroanatomy and etiology
Different languages
Cause
Known unknowns
Surface Dyslexia. Principal features
Neuroanatomy and etiology
Different languages
Cause
Known Unknowns
Phonological Dyslexia. Principal features
Neuroanatomy and etiology
Different Languages
Cause
Known Unknowns
Deep Dyslexia. Principal features
Neuroanatomy and etiology
Different languages
Cause
Known unknowns
Concluding Comments
References
CHAPTER NINETEEN Developmental Dyslexia
Developmental Dyslexia
Definition of Developmental Dyslexia
Common Features of Dyslexia
Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia
Sex Differences in Developmental Dyslexia
Common Co‐Occurring Conditions
Operational Definitions of Dyslexia
Multifactor Models
Leveraging Developmental Research Methodologies to Advance Understanding about Dyslexia
Screening for Early Identification
The Role of Assistive Technology for Individuals with Dyslexia
Improving Operational Definitions
Acknowledgments
References
CHAPTER TWENTY Comorbidity of Reading Disorders
Comorbidity of Dyslexia and Co‐Occurring Disorders
Prevalence of Dyslexia Comorbidities
Models of Dyslexia
Models of Comorbidity
Comorbidities between Dyslexia and Other Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Comorbidity between dyslexia and DLD
Comorbidity between dyslexia and MD
Comorbidity between dyslexia and ADHD
Perspectives for future research
Clinical and Educational Implications
References
CHAPTER TWENTY ONE Learning to Read with a Language or Hearing Impairment
The Language Basis of Reading
Word reading
Listening comprehension
Differences between written and spoken language
Developmental changes
Children with Language Impairment: Who Are They?
Early language delays
Speech versus language impairment
Developmental language disorder (DLD)
Reading Development in Children with Language Impairment. Word reading
Phonological processing
Orthographic knowledge
Morphological knowledge
Differentiating children with DLD‐only from those with DLD+dyslexia
Reading comprehension
Children with Hearing Loss
Language impairment versus language deprivation in hearing loss
Reading development in children with hearing loss
Word reading
Phonological awareness
Orthographic knowledge
Language and reading comprehension
Vocabulary
Grammar
Reading comprehension
Audiologic factors and resilience
Summary and Conclusions
References
PART VI Biological and Social Correlates of Reading
References
CHAPTER TWENTY TWO The Genetics of Dyslexia:Learning from the Past to Shape the Future
Dyslexia Is a Complex Phenotype
Reading Abilities are Highly Heritable
Searching for “Dyslexia Genes”
From Genes to Function: Neuronal Migration and Cilia
The GWAS Era
GWAS for Dyslexia and Reading Abilities
Rare Variants
Polygenic Risk Scores
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Notes
CHAPTER TWENTY THREE Genetic and Environmental Influences on Learning to Read
Overview of Behavior Genetic Methods
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Reading
Reading (Dis)ability
Multivariate Analyses
Developmental Studies
Specific Environments and Gene‐Environment Interplay
Conclusion and Future Directions
References
CHAPTER TWENTY FOUR The Neurobiology of Literacy
The Methods of Modern Neuroscience
Measuring brain activity
Measuring brain anatomy
The Neural Circuitry of Skilled Reading. Visual processing
Language processing
Development of the Brain’s Reading Circuitry
Neurobiological Differences in Developmental Dyslexia
Re‐examining the question of causality in dyslexia
Conclusions
References
Glossary
Index
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