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Jakob J. van Zyl. Introduction to the Physics and Techniques of Remote Sensing
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
WILEY SERIES IN REMOTE SENSING
Introduction to the Physics and Techniques of Remote Sensing
Preface
1 Introduction
1.1 Types and Classes of Remote Sensing Data
1.2 Brief History of Remote Sensing
1.3 Remote Sensing Space Platforms
1.4 Transmission Through the Earth and Planetary Atmospheres
References and Further Reading
2 Nature and Properties of Electromagnetic Waves. 2.1 Fundamental Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
2.1.1 Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.1.2 Maxwell’s Equations
2.1.3 Wave Equation and Solution
2.1.4 Quantum Properties of Electromagnetic Radiation
2.1.5 Polarization
2.1.6 Coherency
2.1.7 Group and Phase Velocity
2.1.8 Doppler Effect
2.2 Nomenclature and Definition of Radiation Quantities
2.2.1 Radiation Quantities
2.2.2 Spectral Quantities
2.2.3 Luminous Quantities
2.3 Generation of Electromagnetic Radiation
2.4 Detection of Electromagnetic Radiation
2.5 Interaction of Electromagnetic Waves with Matter: Quick Overview
2.6 Interaction Mechanisms Throughout the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Exercises
References and Further Reading
3 Solid Surfaces Sensing in the Visible and Near Infrared
3.1 Source Spectral Characteristics
3.2 Wave–Surface Interaction Mechanisms
3.2.1 Reflection, Transmission, and Scattering
3.2.2 Vibrational Processes
3.2.3 Electronic Processes
3.2.3.1 Crystal Field Effect
3.2.3.2 Charge Transfer
3.2.3.3 Conjugate Bonds
3.2.3.4 Materials with Energy Bands
3.2.4 Fluorescence
3.3 Signature of Solid Surface Materials
3.3.1 Signature of Geologic Materials
3.3.2 Signature of Biologic Materials
3.3.3 Depth of Penetration
3.4 Passive Imaging Sensors
3.4.1 Imaging Basics
3.4.2 Sensor Elements
3.4.3 Detectors
3.5 Types of Imaging Systems
3.6 Description of Some Visible/Infrared Imaging Sensors
3.6.1 Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+)
3.6.2 Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER)
3.6.3 Mars Orbiter Camera (MOC)
3.6.4 Mars Exploration Rover Panchromatic Camera (Pancam)
3.6.5 Cassini Imaging Instrument
3.6.6 Juno Imaging System
3.6.7 Europa Imaging System
3.6.8 Cassini Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS)
3.6.9 Chandrayaan Imaging Spectrometer M3
3.6.10 Sentinel Multispectral Imager
3.6.11 Airborne Visible‐Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)
3.7 Active Sensors
3.8 Surface Sensing at Very Short Wavelengths
3.8.1 Radiation Sources
3.8.2 Detection
3.9 Image Data Analysis
3.9.1 Detection and Delineation
3.9.2 Classification
3.9.3 Identification
Exercises
References and Further Reading
4 Solid‐Surface Sensing: Thermal Infrared
4.1 Thermal Radiation Laws
4.1.1 Emissivity of Natural Terrain
4.1.2 Emissivity from the Sun and Planetary Surfaces
4.2 Heat Conduction Theory
4.3 Effect of Periodic Heating
4.4 Use of Thermal Emission in Surface Remote Sensing
4.4.1 Surface Heating by the Sun
4.4.2 Effect of Surface Cover
4.4.3 Separation of Surface Units Based on Their Thermal Signature
4.4.4 Example of Application in Geology
4.4.5 Effects of Clouds on Thermal Infrared Sensing
4.5 Use of Thermal Infrared Spectral Signature in Sensing
4.6 Thermal Infrared Sensors
4.6.1 Heat Capacity Mapping Radiometer
4.6.2 Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner
4.6.3 ASTER Thermal Infrared Imager
4.6.4 Spitzer Space Telescope
4.6.5 2001 Mars Odyssey Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS)
4.6.6 Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR)
Exercises
References and Further Reading
5 Solid‐Surface Sensing: Microwave Emission
5.1 Power‐Temperature Correspondence
5.2 Simple Microwave Radiometry Models
5.2.1 Effects of Polarization
5.2.2 Effects of the Observation Angle
5.2.3 Effects of the Atmosphere
5.2.4 Effects of Surface Roughness
5.3 Applications and Use in Surface Sensing
5.3.1 Application in Polar Ice Mapping
5.3.2 Application in Soil Moisture Mapping
5.3.3 Measurement Ambiguity
5.4 Description of Microwave Radiometers
5.4.1 Antenna and Scanning Configuration for Real‐Aperture Radiometers
5.4.2 Synthetic Aperture Radiometers
5.4.3 Receiver Subsystems
5.4.4 Data Processing
5.5 Examples of Developed Radiometers
5.5.1 Scanning Multichannel Microwave Radiometer (SMMR)
5.5.2 Special Sensor Microwave Imager (SSM/I)
5.5.3 Tropical Rainfall Mapping Mission Microwave Imager (TMI)
5.5.4 AMSR‐E
5.5.5 SMAP Radiometer
Exercises
Refevrences and Further Reading
6 Solid‐Surface Sensing: Microwave and Radio Frequencies
6.1 Surface Interaction Mechanism
6.1.1 Surface Scattering Models
6.1.1.1 First‐Order Small Perturbation Model
6.1.1.2 The Integral Equation Model
6.1.2 Absorption Losses and Volume Scattering
6.1.3 Effects of Polarization
6.1.4 Effects of the Frequency
6.1.5 Effects of the Incidence Angle
6.1.6 Scattering from Natural Terrain
6.2 Basic Principles of Radar Sensors
6.2.1 Antenna Beam Characteristics
6.2.2 Signal Properties: Spectrum
6.2.3 Signal Properties: Modulation
6.2.4 Range Measurements and Discrimination
6.2.5 Doppler (Velocity) Measurement and Discrimination
6.2.6 High‐Frequency Signal Generation
6.3 Imaging Sensors: Real Aperture Radars
6.3.1 Imaging Geometry
6.3.2 Range Resolution
6.3.3 Azimuth Resolution
6.3.4 Radar Equation
6.3.5 Signal Fading
6.3.6 Fading Statistics
6.3.7 Geometric Distortion
6.4 Imaging Sensors: Synthetic Aperture Radars
6.4.1 Synthetic Array Approach
6.4.2 Focused vs. Unfocused SAR
6.4.3 Doppler Synthesis Approach
6.4.4 SAR Imaging Coordinate System
6.4.5 Ambiguities and Artifacts
6.4.6 Point Target Response
6.4.7 Correlation with Point Target Response
6.4.8 Advanced SAR Techniques
6.4.8.1 SAR Polarimetry
6.4.8.2 SAR Interferometry
6.4.8.2.1 Radar Interferometry for Measuring Topography
6.4.8.2.2 Radar Interferometry for Measuring Surface Velocity
6.4.8.2.3 Differential Interferometry for Surface Deformation Studies
6.4.8.3 Polarimetric Interferometry
6.4.9 Description of SAR Sensors and Missions
6.4.9.1 Shuttle Imaging Radar Missions: SIR‐A, SIR‐C/X‐SAR, and SRTM
6.4.9.1.1 Earth Orbiting Free‐Flying SAR Missions
6.4.9.1.2 A Joint NASA/ISRO Mission (NiSAR)
6.4.9.2 Planetary SAR Sensors: Magellan Radar and Cassini Radar
6.4.10 Applications of Imaging Radars
6.5 Nonimaging Radar Sensors: Scatterometers
6.5.1 Examples of Scatterometer Instruments
6.5.1.1 Seasat Scatterometer
6.5.1.2 SeaWinds on QuikScat
6.5.2 Examples of Scatterometer Data
6.6 Nonimaging Radar Sensors: Altimeters
6.6.1 Examples of Altimeter Instruments
6.6.1.1 The Seasat Altimeter
6.6.1.2 The Topex/Poseidon Altimeter Mission
6.6.1.2.1 Jason Altimeter
6.6.1.2.2 Sentinel 3 Synthetic Aperture Altimeter
6.6.2 Altimeter Applications
6.6.3 Imaging Altimetry
6.6.4 Wide Swath Ocean Altimeter
6.7 Nonconventional Radar Sensors
6.8 Subsurface Sounding
Exercises
References and Further Reading
7 Ocean Surface Sensing
7.1 Physical Properties of the Ocean Surface
7.1.1 Tides and Currents
7.1.2 Surface Waves
7.2 Mapping of the Ocean Topography
7.2.1 Geoid Measurement
7.2.2 Surface Wave Effects
7.2.3 Surface Wind Effects
7.2.4 Dynamic Ocean Topography
7.2.5 Ancillary Measurements
7.3 Surface Wind Mapping
7.3.1 Observations Required
7.3.2 Nadir Observations
7.4 Ocean Surface Imaging
7.4.1 Radar Imaging Mechanisms
7.4.2 Examples of Ocean Features on Radar Images
7.4.3 Imaging of Sea Ice
7.4.4 Ocean Color Mapping
7.4.5 Ocean Surface Temperature Mapping
7.4.6 Ocean Salinity Mapping
Exercises
References and Further Reading
8 Basic Principles of Atmospheric Sensing and Radiative Transfer
8.1 Physical Properties of the Atmosphere
8.2 Atmospheric Composition
8.3 Particulates and Clouds
8.4 Wave Interaction Mechanisms in Planetary Atmospheres
8.4.1 Resonant Interactions
8.4.2 Spectral Line Shape
8.4.3 Nonresonant Absorption
8.4.4 Nonresonant Emission
8.4.5 Wave Particle Interaction, Scattering
8.4.6 Wave Refraction
8.5 Optical Thickness
8.6 Radiative Transfer Equation
8.7 Case of a Nonscattering Plane Parallel Atmosphere
8.8 Basic Concepts of Atmospheric Remote Sounding
8.8.1 Basic Concept of Temperature Sounding
8.8.2 Basic Concept for Composition Sounding
8.8.3 Basic Concept for Pressure Sounding
8.8.4 Basic Concept of Density Measurement
8.8.5 Basic Concept of Wind Measurement
Exercises
References and Further Reading
9 Atmospheric Remote Sensing in the Microwave Region
9.1 Microwave Interactions with Atmospheric Gases
9.2 Basic Concept of Downlooking Sensors
9.2.1 Temperature Sounding
9.2.2 Constituent Density Profile: Case of Water Vapor
9.3 Basic Concept for Uplooking Sensors
9.4 Basic Concept for Limblooking Sensors
9.5 Inversion Concepts
9.6 Basic Elements of Passive Microwave Sensors
9.7 Surface Pressure Sensing
9.8 Atmospheric Sounding by Occultation
9.9 Microwave Scattering by Atmospheric Particles
9.10 Radar Sounding of Rain
9.11 Radar Equation for Precipitation Measurement
9.12 The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM)
9.13 Rain Cube
9.14 CloudSat
9.15 Cassini Microwave Radiometer
9.16 Juno Microwave Radiometer (MWR)
Exercises
References and Further Reading
10 Millimeter and Submillimeter Sensing of Atmospheres
10.1 Interaction with Atmospheric Constituents
10.2 Downlooking Sounding
10.3 Limb Sounding
10.4 Elements of a Millimeter Sounder
10.5 Submillimeter Atmospheric Sounder
Exercises
References and Further Reading
11 Atmospheric Remote Sensing in the Visible and Infrared
11.1 Interaction of Visible and Infrared Radiation with the Atmosphere
11.1.1 Visible and Near‐Infrared Radiation
11.1.2 Thermal Infrared Radiation
11.1.3 Resonant Interactions
11.1.4 Effects of Scattering by Particulates
11.2 Downlooking Sounding
11.2.1 General Formulation for Emitted Radiation
11.2.2 Temperature Profile Sounding
11.2.3 Simple Case Weighting Functions
11.2.4 Weighting Functions for Off‐Nadir Observations
11.2.5 Composition Profile Sounding
11.3 Limb Sounding
11.3.1 Limb Sounding by Emission
11.3.2 Limb Sounding by Absorption
11.3.3 Illustrative Example: Pressure Modulator Radiometer
11.3.4 Illustrative Example: Fourier Transform Spectroscopy
11.4 Sounding of Atmospheric Motion
11.4.1 Passive Techniques
11.4.2 Passive Imaging of Velocity Field: Helioseismology
11.4.3 Multi‐Angle Imaging SpectroRadiometer (MISR)
11.4.4 Multi‐Angle Imager for Aerosols (MAIA)
11.4.5 Active Techniques
11.5 Laser Measurement of Wind
11.6 Atmospheric Sensing at Very Short Wavelengths
Exercises
References and Further Reading
12 Ionospheric Sensing
12.1 Properties of Planetary Ionospheres
12.2 Wave Propagation in Ionized Media
12.3 Ionospheric Profile Sensing by Topside Sounding
12.4 Ionospheric Profile by Radio Occultation
Exercises
References and Further Reading
Appendix A Use of Multiple Sensors for Surface Observations
Appendix B Summary of Orbital Mechanics Relevant to Remote Sensing
B.1 Circular Orbits. B.1.1 General Characteristics
B.1.2 Geosynchronous Orbits
B.1.3 Sun‐Synchronous Orbit
B.1.4 Coverage
B.2 Elliptical Orbits
B.3 Orbit Selection
Exercises
Appendix C Simplified Weighting Functions. C.1 Case of Downlooking Sensors (Exponential Atmosphere)
C.2 Case of Downlooking Sensors (Linear Atmosphere)
C.3 Case of Upward‐Looking Sensors
Appendix D Compression of a Linear FM Chirp Signal
Case 1: t ≤ tR
Case 2: t ≥ tR
Index. a
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