Оглавление
Joel P. Dunsmore. Handbook of Microwave Component Measurements
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Handbook of Microwave Component Measurements. With Advanced VNA Techniques
Foreword to the Second Edition
Foreword to the First Edition
Preface to the Second Edition
Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgments for the Second Edition
Acknowledgments from the First Edition
1 Introduction to Microwave Measurements
1.1 Modern Measurement Process
1.2 A Practical Measurement Focus
1.3 Definition of Microwave Parameters
1.3.1 S‐Parameter Primer
1.3.2 Phase Response of Networks
1.4 Power Parameters. 1.4.1 Incident and Reflected Power
1.4.2 Available Power
1.4.3 Delivered Power
1.4.4 Power Available from a Network
1.4.5 Available Gain
1.5 Noise Figure and Noise Parameters
1.5.1 Noise Temperature
1.5.2 Effective or Excess Input Noise Temperature
1.5.3 Excess Noise Power and Operating Temperature
1.5.4 Noise Power Density
1.5.5 Noise Parameters
1.6 Distortion Parameters
1.6.1 Harmonics
1.6.2 Second‐Order Intercept
1.6.3 Two‐Tone Intermodulation Distortion
1.6.4 Adjacent Channel Power and Adjacent Channel Level Ratio
1.6.5 Noise Power Ratio (NPR)
1.6.6 Error Vector Magnitude (EVM)
1.7 Characteristics of Microwave Components
1.8 Passive Microwave Components. 1.8.1 Cables, Connectors, and Transmission Lines. 1.8.1.1 Cables
1.8.2 Connectors
1.8.2.1 7 mm Connector (APC‐7, GPC‐7)
1.8.2.2 Type‐N 50 Ω Connector
1.8.2.3 Type‐N 75 Ω Connector
1.8.2.4 3.5 mm and SMA Connectors
1.8.2.5 2.92 mm Connector
1.8.2.6 2.4 mm Connector
1.8.2.7 1.85 mm Connectors
1.8.2.8 1 mm Connector
1.8.2.9 PC Board Launches and Cable Connectors
1.8.3 Non‐coaxial Transmission Lines
1.8.3.1 Microstrip
1.8.3.2 Other Quasi‐Microstrip Structures
1.8.3.3 Coplaner Waveguide
1.8.3.4 Stripline
1.9 Filters
1.10 Directional Couplers
1.11 Circulators and Isolators
1.12 Antennas
1.13 PC Board Components
1.13.1 SMT Resistors
1.13.2 SMT Capacitors
1.13.3 SMT Inductors
1.13.4 PC Board Vias
1.14 Active Microwave Components
1.14.1 Linear and Non‐linear
1.14.2 Amplifiers: System, Low‐Noise, High Power. 1.14.2.1 System Amplifiers
1.14.2.2 Low‐Noise Amplifiers
1.14.2.3 Power Amplifiers
1.14.3 Mixers and Frequency Converters
1.14.4 Frequency Multiplier and Limiters and Dividers
1.14.4.1 Frequency Dividers
1.14.5 Oscillators
1.15 Measurement Instrumentation. 1.15.1 Power Meters
1.15.1.1 Calorimeters
1.15.1.2 RF Bolometers and Thermistor
1.15.1.3 RF Thermocouples
1.15.1.4 Diode Detectors
1.15.2 Signal Sources. 1.15.2.1 Analog Sources
1.15.2.2 Vector Sources
1.15.3 Spectrum Analyzers
1.15.4 Vector Signal Analyzers
1.15.5 Noise Figure Analyzers
1.15.6 Network Analyzers
1.15.6.1 Scalar Network Analyzers
1.15.6.2 Vector Network Analyzers
References
Note
2 VNA Measurement Systems. 2.1 Introduction
2.2 VNA Block Diagrams
2.2.1 VNA Source
2.2.2 Understanding Source‐Match
2.2.2.1 Ratio Source‐Match
2.2.2.2 Power Source‐Match
2.2.2.3 Source Output Impedance
2.2.3 VNA Test Set. 2.2.3.1 Test Set Switch
2.2.3.2 Step Attenuator Effects
2.2.3.3 Test Set Reflections
2.2.4 Directional Devices
2.2.4.1 RF Directional Bridges
2.2.4.2 Directional Couplers
2.2.4.3 1+Gamma
2.2.5 VNA Receivers
2.2.5.1 Samplers
2.2.5.2 Mixers
2.2.5.3 Noise Floor
2.2.5.4 Spurious Responses
2.2.5.5 Phase Noise
2.2.5.6 Isolation and Crosstalk
2.2.6 IF and Data Processing
2.2.6.1 ADC Design
2.2.7 Multiport VNAs
2.2.7.1 Switching Test Sets
2.2.7.2 Extension Test Sets
2.2.7.3 True‐Multiport VNAs
2.2.7.4 Calibration of Multiport VNAs
2.2.8 High‐Power Test Systems
2.2.9 VNA with mm‐Wave Extenders
2.3 VNA Measurement of Linear Microwave Parameters
2.3.1 Measurement Limitations of the VNA
2.3.1.1 Noise Floor
2.3.2 Limitations Due to External Components
2.4 Measurements Derived from S‐Parameters
2.4.1 The Smith Chart
2.4.1.1 Series and Shunt Elements
2.4.1.2 Impedance Transformation
2.4.2 Transforming S‐Parameters to Other Impedances
2.4.3 Concatenating Circuits and T‐Parameters
2.5 Modeling Circuits Using Y and Z Conversion
2.5.1 Reflection Conversion
2.5.2 Transmission Conversion
2.6 Other Linear Parameters
2.6.1 Z‐Parameters, or Open‐Circuit Impedance Parameters
2.6.2 Y‐Parameters, or Short‐Circuit Admittance Parameters
2.6.3 ABCD Parameters
2.6.4 H‐Parameters or Hybrid Parameters
2.6.5 Complex Conversions and Non‐equal Reference Impedances
References
3 Calibration and Vector Error Correction. 3.1 Introduction
3.1.1 Error Correction and Linear Measurement Methods for S‐Parameters
3.1.1.1 Signal Flow Graphs for VNA Hardware Configurations
3.1.2 Power Measurements with a VNA
3.2 Basic Error Correction for S‐Parameters: Cal‐Application
3.2.1 12‐Term Error Model
3.2.2 1‐Port Error Model
3.2.3 8‐Term Error Model
3.3 Determining Error Terms: Cal‐Acquisition for 12‐Term Models
3.3.1 1‐Port Error Terms
3.3.2 1‐Port Standards
3.3.2.1 Open Standards
3.3.2.2 Short Standards
3.3.2.3 Load Standards: Fixed Loads
3.3.2.4 Load Standards: Sliding Loads
3.3.3 2‐Port Error Terms
3.3.3.1 Isolation Standards
3.3.3.2 Thru Standards: Flush Thru
3.3.3.3 Thru Standards: Non‐insertable Thru
3.3.3.4 Swap‐Equal Adapter
3.3.3.5 Defined Thru
3.3.3.6 Adapter Removal Calibration
3.3.4 12‐Term to 11‐Term Error Model
3.4 Determining Error Terms: Cal‐Acquisition for 8‐Term Models
3.4.1 TRL Standards and Raw Measurements
3.4.1.1 Thru Standard
3.4.1.2 Line Standard
3.4.1.3 Reflect Standard
3.4.2 Special Cases for TRL Calibration. 3.4.2.1 TRM Calibration
3.4.2.2 Other TRL Considerations
3.4.3 Unknown Thru or SOLR (Reciprocal Thru Calibration)
3.4.3.1 Unknown Thru Standard
3.4.4 Applications of Unknown Thru Calibrations
3.4.4.1 Non‐insertable Coaxial Calibration
3.4.4.2 On‐Wafer Calibrations
3.4.4.3 Fixed‐Port Calibration
3.4.4.4 Switched‐Path Calibration
3.4.5 QSOLT Calibration
3.4.6 Electronic Calibration (ECal™) or Automatic Calibration
3.4.6.1 Calibration Types for Electronic Calibration Modules
3.4.6.2 User Characterization of Ecal Modules
3.5 Waveguide Calibrations
3.6 Calibration for Source Power
3.6.1 Calibrating Source Power for Source Frequency Response
3.6.2 Calibration for Power Sensor Mismatch
3.6.3 Calibration for Source Power Linearity
3.7 Calibration for Receiver Power. 3.7.1 Some Historical Perspective
3.7.2 Modern Receiver Power Calibration
3.7.2.1 Calibration for Power Sensor Mismatch
3.7.2.2 Response Correction for the Reference Receiver
3.7.3 Response Correction for the Transmission Test Receiver
3.7.3.1 Enhanced Power Calibration with Match Correction
3.7.3.2 Match Corrected Incident Power Calibration
3.7.3.3 Match‐Corrected Output Power Calibration Acquisition
3.7.3.4 Match‐Corrected Output Power Calibration Application
3.7.3.5 Measuring Match‐Corrected Reflected Power
3.7.4 Power Waves vs. Actual Waves
3.8 Calibrating Multiple Channels Simultaneously: Cal All
3.9 Multiport Calibration Strategies
3.9.1 N × 2‐Port Calibrations: Switching Test Sets
3.9.2 N‐port Calibration: True Multiport
3.9.2.1 Multiport Unknown Thru
3.9.2.2 Multiport QSOLT
3.10 Automatic In‐Situ Calibrations: CalPod
3.10.1 CalPod Initialization and Recorrection
3.10.2 CalPod‐as‐Ecal
3.11 Devolved Calibrations
3.11.1 Response Calibrations
3.11.2 Enhanced Response Calibration
3.12 Determining Residual Errors. 3.12.1 Reflection Errors
3.12.2 Using Airlines to Determine Residual Errors
3.12.2.1 Determining Directivity
3.12.2.2 Determining Source‐Match and Reflection Tracking Residual Errors
3.12.2.3 Reflection Tracking Residuals
3.12.2.4 Load Match Residual Error
3.12.2.5 Transmission Residual Errors
3.13 Computing Measurement Uncertainties
3.13.1 Uncertainty in Reflection Measurements
3.13.2 Uncertainty in Source Power
3.13.3 Uncertainty in Measuring Power (Receiver Uncertainty)
3.14 S21 or Transmission Uncertainty
3.14.1 General Uncertainty Equation for S21
3.14.2 Dynamic Uncertainty Computation
3.15 Errors in Phase
3.16 Practical Calibration Limitations
3.16.1 Cable Flexure
3.16.2 Changing Power after Calibration
3.16.3 Compensating for Changes in Step Attenuators
3.16.4 Connector Repeatability
3.16.5 Noise Effects
3.16.6 Drift: Short‐Term and Long‐Term
3.16.7 Interpolation of Error Terms
3.16.8 Calibration Quality: Electronic vs. Mechanical Kits
Reference
4 Time‐Domain Transforms. 4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Fourier Transform
4.2.1 The Continuous Fourier Transform
4.2.2 Even and Odd Functions and the Fourier Transform
4.2.2.1 Hermitian Functions
4.2.3 Modulation (Shift) Theorem
4.3 The Discrete Fourier Transform
4.3.1 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT)
4.3.1.1 Fine Structure Response
4.3.2 Discrete Fourier Transforms
4.4 Fourier Transform (Analytic) vs. VNA Time Domain Transform
4.4.1 Defining the Fourier Transform
4.4.2 Effects of Discrete Sampling
4.4.3 Effects of Truncated Frequency
4.4.3.1 Causality
4.4.4 Windowing to Reduce Effects of Truncation
4.4.5 Scaling and Renormalization
4.5 Low‐Pass Transforms
4.5.1 Low‐Pass Impulse Mode
4.5.2 DC Extrapolation
4.5.3 Low‐Pass Step Mode
4.5.4 Band‐Pass Mode
4.6 Time‐Domain Gating
4.6.1 Gating Loss and Renormalization
4.7 Examples of Time‐Domain Transforms of Various Networks. 4.7.1 Time‐Domain Response of Changes in Line Impedance
4.7.2 Time‐Domain Response of Discrete Discontinuities
4.7.3 Time‐Domain Responses of Various Circuits
4.8 The Effects of Masking and Gating on Measurement Accuracy
4.8.1 Compensation for Changes in Line Impedance
4.8.2 Compensation for Discrete Discontinuities
4.8.3 Time‐Domain Gating. 4.8.3.1 Gating the First of Two Discontinuities
4.8.3.2 Gating the Second of Two Discontinuities
4.8.3.3 Compensation for a Combination of Discontinuities and Line Impedance Changes
4.8.4 Estimating an Uncertainty Due to Masking
4.9 Time‐Domain Transmission Using VNA
4.10 Conclusions
References
5 Measuring Linear Passive Devices
5.1 Transmission Lines, Cables, and Connectors
5.1.1 Calibration for Low Loss Devices with Connectors
5.1.2 Measuring Electrically Long Devices
5.1.2.1 IF Delay
5.1.3 Attenuation Measurements
5.1.3.1 Connector Compensation Using Port Matching
5.1.3.2 Connector Compensation Using Time‐Domain Gating
5.1.3.3 Attenuation Measurements on Very Long Cables
5.1.3.4 In‐Situ Calibration and CalPods
5.1.3.5 Time‐Domain Responses and One‐Way Measurements
5.1.4 Return Loss Measurements
5.1.4.1 Measuring In‐Line Cable Connectors
5.1.4.2 Structural Return Loss
5.1.4.3 Cable Impedance
5.1.5 Cable Length and Delay
5.2 Filters and Filter Measurements
5.2.1 Filter Classes and Difficulties
5.2.2 Duplexer and Diplexers
5.2.3 Measuring Tunable High‐Performance Filters
5.2.3.1 Filters with Very Low Loss and Well Matched In‐Band
5.2.3.2 Measuring Filter Return Loss
5.2.4 Measuring Transmission Response
5.2.4.1 Passband Measurement
5.2.4.2 Excess Loss
5.2.4.3 Limit Testing for Transmission
5.2.4.4 Evaluating Ripple Using Statistics
5.2.5 High Speed vs. Dynamic Range
5.2.5.1 Segmented Sweeps
5.2.6 Extremely High Dynamic Range Measurements
5.2.6.1 Group Delay Measurements
5.2.6.2 Long Delay (SAW) Filters
5.2.6.3 Deviation from Linear Phase
5.2.7 Calibration Considerations
5.3 Multiport Devices
5.3.1 Differential Cables and Lines
5.3.2 Couplers
5.3.3 Hybrids, Splitters, and Dividers
5.3.3.1 90° Hybrids
5.3.3.2 Balanced Hybrids
5.3.3.3 Splitters and Dividers
5.3.4 Circulators and Isolators
5.4 Resonators. 5.4.1 Resonator Responses on a Smith Chart
5.5 Antenna Measurements
5.6 Conclusions
References
Note
6 Measuring Amplifiers
6.1 Amplifiers as a Linear Devices
6.1.1 Pretesting an Amplifier
6.1.2 Optimizing VNA Settings for Calibration
6.1.3 Calibration for Amplifier Measurements
6.1.3.1 Source Power Calibrations
6.1.3.2 Receiver Power Calibrations
6.1.3.3 Advanced Techniques and Enhanced Power Calibration
6.1.3.4 S‐Parameter Calibrations for Amplifiers
6.1.4 Amplifier Measurements
6.1.4.1 S‐Parameters, Gain, and Return Loss, Input Power and Output Power
6.1.4.2 DC Measurements
6.1.4.3 Conclusions on Amplifier Measurements
6.1.5 Analysis of Amplifier Measurements
6.1.5.1 Stability Factors
6.1.5.2 Stability Circles
6.1.5.3 Mu Factors
6.1.5.4 Gain Factors
6.1.5.5 Analysis Conclusions
6.1.6 Saving Amplifier Measurement Results
6.1.6.1 CITI File
6.1.6.2 S2P or Touchstone® Files
6.1.6.3 CSV Files and Exporting Data to Excel
6.2 Gain Compression Measurements
6.2.1 Compression Definitions
6.2.1.1 Compression from Linear Gain
6.2.1.2 Compression from Max Gain
6.2.1.3 Compression from Back‐off or X‐Y Compression
6.2.1.4 Compression from Saturation
6.2.2 AM‐to‐PM or Phase Compression
6.2.3 Swept Frequency Gain and Phase Compression
6.2.4 Gain Compression Application, Smart Sweep, and Safe‐Sweep Mode
6.2.4.1 Safe Modes of Measuring Compression
6.2.4.2 Full 2‐D Gain and Compression Characterization
6.2.4.3 Calibration in Compression Measurements
6.2.4.4 DC Power Analysis
6.2.4.5 Error Correction and Compression
6.3 Measuring High‐Gain Amplifiers
6.3.1 Setup for High‐Gain Amplifiers
6.3.2 Calibration Considerations
6.4 Measuring High‐Power Amplifiers
6.4.1 Configurations for Generating High Drive Power. 6.4.1.1 Moderate Drive Levels (Less Than +30 dBm)
6.4.1.2 High Drive Levels (Greater Than +30 dBm)
6.4.2 Configurations for Receiving High‐Power
6.4.3 Power Calibration and Pre/Post Leveling
6.5 Making Pulsed‐RF Measurements
6.5.1 Wideband vs. Narrowband Measurements
6.5.1.1 Point‐in‐Pulse Measurements
6.5.2 Pulse Profile Measurements
6.5.3 Pulse‐to‐Pulse Measurements
6.5.4 DC Measurements for Pulsed RF Stimulus
6.5.4.1 Pulsed‐DC and Pulsed‐RF Measurements
6.6 Distortion Measurements
6.6.1 Harmonic Measurements on Amplifiers
6.7 Measuring Doherty Amplifiers
6.8 X‐Parameters, Load‐Pull Measurements, Active Loads, and Hot S‐Parameters
6.8.1 Non‐linear Responses and X‐Parameters
6.8.2 Load‐Pull, Source‐Pull, and Load Contours
6.8.2.1 Mechanical Load‐Pull Systems
6.8.2.2 Active Load‐Pull
6.8.2.3 Hybrid Load‐Pull Systems
6.8.2.4 Power Contours
6.8.2.5 Efficiency Contours
6.8.3 Hot S‐Parameters and True Hot‐S22
6.8.3.1 Evaluating the Spectrum of Traditional Hot‐S22
6.8.3.2 Computing True Hot‐S22
6.8.3.3 Computing Hot S‐Parameters
6.8.3.4 Examples of Hot S‐Parameters
6.8.3.5 Hot‐S22, Hot S‐Parameters, and System Performance
6.8.3.6 Limitations of Hot S‐Parameters
6.9 Conclusions on Amplifier Measurements
References
7 Mixer and Frequency Converter Measurements
7.1 Mixer Characteristics
7.1.1 Small Signal Model of Mixers
7.1.2 Reciprocity in Mixers
7.1.2.1 Notes on LO Phase Response
7.1.3 Scalar and Vector Responses
7.2 Mixers vs. Frequency Converters
7.2.1 Frequency Converter Design
7.2.2 Multiple Conversions and Spur Avoidance
7.3 Mixers as a 12‐Port Device
7.3.1 Mixer Conversion Terms. 7.3.1.1 IF to RF Conversion
7.3.1.2 Reflection and Re‐conversion
7.3.1.3 Image Enhancement
7.3.1.4 Conversion on the LO Port
7.4 Mixer Measurements: Frequency Response. 7.4.1 Introduction
7.4.2 Amplitude Response
7.4.2.1 Fixed LO Measurements
7.4.3 Phase Response
7.4.3.1 Down/Up‐Conversion
7.4.3.2 Parallel Path Using a Reference Mixer (Vector Mixer Characterization, VMC)
7.4.3.3 Phase‐Coherent Receivers
7.4.4 Group Delay and Modulation Methods
7.4.5 Swept LO Measurements
7.4.5.1 Phase Measurements for Swept LO: Beam Forming and Radar System Matching
7.4.5.2 Absolute Phase Measurements of Mixers
7.5 Calibration for Mixer Measurements
7.5.1 Calibrating for Power
7.5.1.1 Split‐Port Cal for Amplitude Response
7.5.2 Calibrating for Phase
7.5.2.1 Three‐Mixer Method
7.5.3 Determining the Phase and Delay of a Reciprocal Calibration Mixer
7.5.3.1 Reciprocal Cal Mixer Reflection Method
7.5.3.2 Reciprocal Cal Mixer Unknown Thru Method
7.5.3.3 Phase Reference Method
7.6 Mixers Measurements vs. Drive Power
7.6.1 Mixer Measurements vs. LO Drive. 7.6.1.1 Fixed Frequency Response to LO Drive
7.6.1.2 Swept Frequency Response to LO Drive
7.6.2 Mixer Measurements vs. RF Drive Level
7.6.2.1 Swept Frequency Measurements vs. RF Drive
7.6.2.2 Fixed‐Frequency Measurements vs. RF Drive
7.6.2.3 Automated Gain Compression Measurements on Mixers (GCX)
7.7 TOI and Mixers
7.7.1 IMD vs. LO Drive Power
7.7.2 IMD vs. RF Power
7.7.3 IMD vs. Frequency Response
7.8 Noise Figure in Mixers and Converters
7.9 Special Cases
7.9.1 Mixers with RF or LO Multipliers
7.9.2 Segmented Sweeps
7.9.3 Measuring Higher‐Order Products
7.9.3.1 Swept LO Group Delay
7.9.4 Mixers with an Embedded LO
7.9.5 High‐Gain and High‐Power Converters
7.10 I/Q Converters and Modulators
I/Q Figures of Merit
Measurements on I/Q Up‐Converters (I/Q Modulators)
Measuring I/Q Down‐Converters
7.11 Conclusions on Mixer Measurements
References
8 Spectrum Analysis: Distortion and Modulation Measurements
8.1 Spectrum Analysis in Vector Network Analyzers
8.1.1 Spectrum Analysis Fundamentals
8.1.1.1 Resolution Bandwidth Filters
8.1.1.2 Sweeping Speed vs. RBW
8.1.1.3 FFT Mode in Spectrum Analysis
8.1.2 SA Block Diagrams: Image Rejection: Hardware vs. Software. 8.1.2.1 Hardware Image Rejection
8.1.2.2 Software Image Rejection
8.1.2.3 IF Response
8.1.3 Attributes of Repetitive Signals and Spectrum Measurements
8.1.3.1 Understanding Modulated Waveforms
8.1.3.2 Complementary Composite Distribution Function (CCDF)
8.1.3.3 Generating Noise‐Like Signals
8.1.3.4 Effects of Sweep Time
8.1.3.5 VBW Effects
8.1.3.6 RBW Effects
8.1.3.7 The “Scales Fell from His Eyes” RBW < (1/T)
8.1.4 Coherent Spectrum Analysis
8.1.4.1 Attributes of Coherency
8.1.4.2 Coherent‐Time‐Averaging (Vector Averaging)
8.1.4.3 Coherent Image Rejection
8.1.4.4 Modulated Power Detection for Coherent Signals
8.1.5 Calibration of SA Results
8.1.6 Two‐Tone Measurements, IMD, and TOI Definition
8.1.6.1 Intercept Points: OIP3
8.1.7 Measurement Techniques for Two‐Tone TOI
8.1.8 Swept IMD
8.1.9 Optimizing Results
8.1.9.1 Source Optimization
8.1.9.2 Receiver Optimization
8.1.10 Error Correction
8.2 Distortion Measurement of Complex Modulated Signals
8.2.1 Adjacent Power Measurements
8.2.1.1 Adjacent Channel Power Ratio (ACPR)
8.2.1.2 Adjacent Channel Power and EVM
8.2.2 Noise Power Ratio (NPR) Measurements
8.2.2.1 Generating NPR Signals
8.2.2.2 NPR Measurement: Band Power
8.2.2.3 NPR Measurement: Band‐Power Density
8.2.3 NPR Signal Quality and Correction
8.2.3.1 NPR and Coherent Power Measurements
8.2.4 EVM Derived from Distortion Measurements
8.3 Measurements of Spurious Signals with VNA Spectrum Analyzer
8.3.1 Spurious at Predictable Frequencies. 8.3.1.1 Multistage Converter Example
8.3.1.2 Determining Spur Order
8.3.2 Multiport Mixer Spurious Measurements
8.3.3 Spurious Oscillations
8.4 Measurements of Pulsed Signals and Time‐Gated Spectrum Analysis
8.4.1 Understanding Pulsed Spectrum
8.4.2 Time‐Gated Spectrum Analysis
8.5 Summary
Reference
9 Measuring Noise Figure and Noise Power
9.1 Noise‐Figure Measurements for Amplifiers
9.1.1 Definition of Noise Figure
9.1.2 Noise‐Power Measurements
9.1.2.1 Noise Receiver Bandwidth
9.1.2.2 Understanding Jitter
9.1.3 Computing Noise Figure from Noise Powers. 9.1.3.1 Y‐Factor Correction and Noise Receiver Calibration
9.1.4 Computing DUT Noise Figure from Y‐Factor Measurements
9.1.5 Cold‐Source Methods
9.1.6 Noise Parameters
9.1.6.1 Noise Parameter Measurement Systems
9.1.7 Noise Parameter Measurement Results
9.1.8 Error Correction in Noise Figure Measurements
9.2 Active Antenna Noise‐Figure Measurements (G/T)
9.3 Noise Figure in Mixers and Converters
9.3.1 Y‐Factor Measurements on Mixers
9.3.2 Cold‐Source Measurements on Mixers
9.3.2.1 Low‐Gain Mixer NF Measurements
9.3.2.2 Excess LO Noise in Mixers
9.4 Other Noise‐Related Measurements. 9.4.1 Noise Power Measurements with a VNA Spectrum Analyzer
9.4.2 Noise‐Power Measurements
9.4.2.1 Traditional SA Considerations
9.4.2.2 VNA‐Based SA Considerations
9.4.3 Noise Figure Measurements Using Spectrum Analysis
9.4.4 Carrier‐to‐Noise Measurements
9.5 Uncertainty, Verification, and Improvement of Noise‐Figure Measurements. 9.5.1 Uncertainty of Noise‐Figure Measurements
9.5.2 Existing Methodologies
9.5.2.1 Improved Traceable Verification Devices for Noise Figure
9.5.3 Techniques for Improving Noise‐Figure Measurements. 9.5.3.1 Improving Y‐Factor Measurements
9.5.3.2 Improving Cold‐Source Measurements
9.6 Summary: Noise and Noise‐Figure Measurements
References
10 VNA Balanced Measurements. 10.1 Differential and Balanced S‐Parameters
10.2 3‐Port Balanced Devices
10.3 Measurement Examples for Mixed‐Mode Devices. 10.3.1 Passive Differential Devices: Balanced Transmission Lines
10.3.2 Differential Amplifier Measurements
10.3.3 Differential Amplifiers and Non‐linear Operation
10.4 True‐Mode VNA for Non‐linear Testing
10.4.1 True‐Mode Instruments
10.4.2 True‐Mode Measurements. 10.4.2.1 Measuring a Limiting Amplifier
10.4.2.2 Measuring a “Normal” Differential Amplifier
10.4.3 Determining the Phase Skew of a Differential Device
10.4.4 Differential Harmonic Measurements
10.5 Differential Testing Using Baluns, Hybrids, and Transformers
10.5.1 Transformers vs. Hybrids
10.5.2 Using Hybrids and Baluns with a 2‐Port VNA
10.6 Distortion Measurements of Differential Devices
10.6.1 Comparing Single‐Ended IMD Measurement to True‐Mode Measurements
10.6.2 Differential IMD without Baluns
10.7 Noise Figure Measurements on Differential Devices
10.7.1.1. Mixed‐Mode Noise Figure
10.7.2 Measurement Setup
10.8 Conclusions on Differential Device Measurement
References
11 Advanced Measurement Techniques
11.1 Creating Your Own Cal‐Kits
11.1.1 PC Board Example
11.1.2 Evaluating PC Board Fixtures
11.1.2.1 Characterizing the Thru Standard
11.1.2.2 Characterizing the 1‐Port Standards
11.1.2.3 Investigating the Load Standard
11.1.2.4 Open/Short Characterization and Modeling
11.1.2.5 Creating Cal‐Kit Models
11.1.2.6 Database Standards
11.1.2.7 Measurement Results with a PC Board Cal‐Kit
11.1.2.8 Conclusions on PC Board Fixtures
11.2 Fixturing and De‐embedding
11.2.1 De‐embedding Mathematics
11.3 Determining S‐Parameters for Fixtures
11.3.1 Fixture Characterization Using 1‐Port Calibrations
11.3.1.1 Computing the Square Root of a Complex Frequency Response
11.3.1.2 Port Extensions
11.3.1.3 Determining Port Extensions Values
11.4 Automatic Port Extensions (APE)
11.5 AFR: Fixture Removal Using Time Domain
11.5.1 2‐Port AFR
11.5.1.1 AFR Measurement Example
11.5.2 Fixture‐Enhanced AFR
11.5.3 1‐Port AFR
11.6 Embedding Port‐Matching Elements
11.7 Impedance Transformations
11.8 De‐embedding High‐Loss Devices
11.9 Understanding System Stability
11.9.1 Determining Cable Transmission Stability
11.9.2 Determining Cable Mismatch Stability
11.9.3 Reflection Tracking Stability
11.10 Some Final Comments on Advanced Techniques and Measurements
References
Appendix A Physical Constants
Appendix B Common RF and Microwave Connectors
Appendix C Common Waveguides
Appendix D Some Definitions for Calibration Kit Opens and Shorts
Appendix E Frequency, Wavelength, and Period
Index
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