Plant Pathology and Plant Pathogens

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John A. Lucas. Plant Pathology and Plant Pathogens

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List of Illustrations

Guide

Pages

Plant Pathology and Plant Pathogens

Preface

List of Abbreviations

About the Companion Website

Part I Plant Disease

Further Reading. Books

Reviews and Papers

Scientific Journals

1 The Diseased Plant

Concepts of Disease

Damage or Disease?

Symptoms of Disease

Causes of Disease

Pests

Parasitic Plants and Weeds

Abiotic Agents

Significance of Disease. Disease in Natural Plant Communities

Disease in Agriculture, Horticulture, and Forestry

Crop Yield and Quality

The Impact of Disease

Quantifying Losses Due to Disease

Disease is a Dynamic Phenomenon

Further Reading. Books

Reviews and Papers

2 The Microbial Pathogens

Pathogens and Pathogenesis

Biotrophs and Necrotrophs

Pathogen Classification

Koch's Postulates

Host Resistance and Pathogen Virulence

Resistance and Susceptibility

Genetic Control of Resistance and Virulence

Gene‐for‐Gene Theory

Further Reading. Books

Articles

3 Pathogen Biology

Fungi as Plant Pathogens. Vegetative Growth of Fungi

Reproduction in Fungi

Oomycetes as Plant Pathogens

Bacteria as Plant Pathogens

Mycoplasma‐Like Organisms as Plant Pathogens

Protozoa as Plant Pathogens

Viruses as Plant Pathogens

Viroids as Plant Pathogens

Variation in Microbial Pathogen Populations

Dispersal of Pathogens

Aerial Environment

Soil Environment

Vectors

Virus Vectors

Other Virus Vectors

Humans as Vectors

Pathogen Survival

Dormancy

Fungistasis

Survival in Hosts or Vectors

Alternative Hosts

Survival as Saprotrophs

Longevity

Further Reading. Books

Reviews and Papers

4 Disease Assessment and Forecasting

Disease Detection

Molecular Diagnostics

Diagnosis Based on Nucleic Acids

Disease Assessment in the Crop

Measuring Disease

Imaging Plant Disease

Remote Sensing of Disease

Monitoring Virulence and Pesticide Resistance

Monitoring Pathogen Inoculum

Monitoring Vectors

Disease Severity and Crop Loss Relationships

Disease Forecasting

Meteorological Forecasting Systems

Long‐Range Forecasts

Further Reading. Books

Reviews and Papers

Websites for Disease Forecasts

5 Plant Disease Epidemics

Epidemic Development

The Disease Growth Curve

Mathematical Description of Epidemics

Further Disease Models

Spatial Spread of Disease

Model Validation

Population Structure of Epidemics

Global Pandemics

Global Epidemiology of Potato Late Blight

Recent History of Dutch Elm Disease

Yellow Rust of Wheat

Relevance of Epidemiology to Control

Plant Biosecurity

Quarantine and Other Biosecurity Measures

Legislation for Plant Health

Trade Versus Biosecurity?

Further Reading. Books

Reviews and Papers

Part II Host–Pathogen Interactions

Stages in Host–Pathogen Interaction

Pathogenicity and Plant Immunity

Further Reading. Books

Reviews and Papers

6 Entry and Colonization of the Host

The Infection Court

Adhesion

Direct Penetration

Penetration of Plant Roots and Other Tissues

Penetration Through Natural Openings. Entry Through Stomata

Lenticels, Hydathodes, and Nectaries

Penetration Through Wounds

The Host–Pathogen Interface

Structure and Function of Haustoria

Other Roles for Haustoria

Intracellular Pathogens

Development Following Infection

Colonization by Bacteria

Colonization by Viruses

Further Reading. Books

Reviews and Papers

7 The Physiology of Plant Disease

Postinfectional Changes in Host Physiology. Respiration

Mechanism of Respiratory Increase

Photosynthesis

Translocation and Assimilation of Nutrients

Global Changes in the Metabolism of Infected Plants

Translocation of Water

Wilt Syndrome

Transpiration

Cell Water Relations

Growth Regulation

Conclusion

Further Reading. Reviews and Papers

8 Microbial Pathogenicity

A Molecular Genetic Approach

Stage‐Specific Gene Expression

Comparative Genomics and Pathogenicity

Enzymes and Microbial Pathogenicity

Cell Wall‐Degrading Enzymes (CWDE)

Enzymes Degrading Host Inhibitors

Toxins

Host‐Specific Toxins

Nonhost‐Specific Toxins

High Molecular Weight Compounds and Pathogenesis

Hormones and Pathogenesis

Growth Disorders Caused by Bacterial Pathogens

Conclusion

A Vital Role for Pathogen Effectors

Further Reading. Reviews and Papers

9 Plant Defense

Types of Plant Defense

Preformed Inhibitors

Antimicrobial Proteins

Antiviral Proteins

Active Defense Mechanisms

Host Reactions to Penetration

Changes in Host Cell Walls

The Hypersensitive Response

The Oxidative Burst

Phytoalexins

Phytoalexins and Plant Defense

Biosynthesis of Defense Metabolites

Pathogenesis‐Related Proteins

Can Plants Be Immunized?

Other Systemic Defense Responses

Defense Priming and the Immune Memory of Plants

Conclusion

Further Reading. Reviews and Papers

10 Host–Pathogen Specificity

Types of Specificity

Specificity Based on Gene‐for‐Gene Interactions

Microbial and Plant Elicitors of Defense

Bacterial avr Genes

Fungal Avr Genes

Extracellular Versus Intracellular Infection Routes

Other Functions for Avr Genes?

Bacterial hrp Genes

A Unifying Concept: Pathogen Effectors and Plant Immunity

Pathogen Effector Repertoires

Apoplastic Effectors

Delivery of Cytoplasmic Effectors

Necrotrophic Effectors and the Inverse Gene‐for‐Gene Relationship

Genes for Pathogen Recognition and Resistance

Pathogen Recognition Genes

Plant Resistance (R) Genes

Structure and Function of NLR Immune Receptors

Genomic Organization of R Genes

Specificity of Virus Pathogens

Mechanisms of Resistance to Plant Viruses

Recessive Resistance to Plant Viruses

Resistance Based on RNAi

Conclusion

Further Reading. Books

Reviews and Papers

Part III Disease Management

Options for Disease Control

The Economics of Control

Further Reading. Reviews and Articles

11 Disease Management by Chemicals

The Evolution of Fungicides

The Perfect Fungicide

The Discovery Process

Biorational Design

Types of Fungicides

Mode of Action of Fungicides

Alternative Modes of Action

Control by Gene Silencing

Formulation and Application

Fungicide Programs

Fungicide Resistance

Some Definitions

The Evolution of Resistance

Mechanisms of Fungicide Resistance

Management of Fungicide Resistance

Estimating Resistance Risk

Monitoring Resistance

Strategies to Reduce Selection

The Future of Fungicides

Further Reading. Books

Reviews and Papers

Website

12 Disease Management by Host Resistance

Breeding for Disease Resistance

Sources of Resistance

Selection of Disease Resistance

Genomics‐Assisted Plant Breeding

Resistance in the Field

The Boom and Bust Cycle

Breaking the Boom and Bust Cycle

Effector‐Guided Resistance Breeding

Diversification of Resistance

Biotechnology and Breeding for Disease Resistance

Transgenic Resistance in Plant Breeding

Transgenic Resistance to Viruses

Host‐Induced Gene Silencing (HIGS)

Future Prospects for Crop Resistance to Pathogens

Conclusion

Further Reading. Books

Reviews and Papers

13 Biological Control of Plant Disease

Cultural Practices and Disease Control

Crop Rotation

Soil Amendments

Tillage

Thermotherapy

Biological Control

Classic Biocontrol

Microbial Antagonism

Selection of BCAs for Plant Disease Control

Production and Formulation of BCAs

Some Case Histories

Mode of Action of BCAs against Plant Pathogens

Hypovirulence

Induction of Host Resistance

Developing More Effective Biocontrol Agents

The Future of Biocontrol

Further Reading. Books

Reviews and Papers

14 An Integrated Approach to Disease Management

Integrated Control of Plant Disease

Integration of Fungicides with Host Resistance

Prolonging the Effectiveness of Host Resistance and Fungicides

Integration of Cultural and Biological Measures

Making Decisions

The Impact of New Technology – Digital Agriculture

The Impact of Biotechnology and Genomics

Designing Future Farms

The Technology Gap

Further Reading. Reviews and Papers

Appendix 1. Annotated List of Pathogens and the Diseases they Cause

Appendix 2. Reference Sources for Figures

Index

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Fourth Edition

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While the current models of climate change predict varying future scenarios, they all agree that greater fluctuations in temperature and rainfall are likely to occur, with consequent annual variations in crop yield. Rising temperatures may pose a threat not only due to drought. Episodes of higher than usual temperatures can disrupt important developmental processes, such as fertilization in cereals and fruit set in tomatoes. In the longer term, such effects may lead to changes in the areas where certain crops can be reliably grown. The frequency of extreme weather events is also predicted to increase. High winds can have catastrophic effects on plants; perennial plantation crops such as bananas have been destroyed by hurricanes in the West Indies, Cuba, and Central America. Hailstorms are particularly damaging to soft fruit crops and grapevines. There are other, less common environmental hazards. The massive eruption of Mount St Helens in Washington State in 1980 deposited volcanic ash over a wide area with a variety of effects on agriculture. Ash on plant leaves reduced photosynthesis by as much as 90%, some crops such as alfalfa actually lodged (collapsed) under the weight of ash, but eventual crop losses were less than expected, at around 7% of the total.

Chemical deficiencies or imbalances often result in distinctive symptoms, which may be diagnostic in the case of deficiencies of essential cations. For example, magnesium deficiency in swedes is associated with an abnormal purplish pigmentation in interveinal leaf areas, whereas boron deficiency in the same crop causes brown‐heart symptoms in the storage root. Such deficiency diseases are commonplace, especially in the intensive cropping systems of present‐day agriculture. In the UK, recent reductions in atmospheric sulfur, and subsequent deposition by rainfall, are now leading to deficiencies occurring in sulfur‐demanding crops such as oilseed rape. Sulfur deficiency can affect crop quality as well as quantity, for instance by reducing the bread‐making quality of wheat flour.

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