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John Addington Symonds. Italian Renaissance
Italian Renaissance
Table of Contents
Volume 1
Table of Contents
PREFACE
CHAPTER I. THE SPIRIT OF THE RENAISSANCE
CHAPTER II. ITALIAN HISTORY
CHAPTER III. THE AGE OF THE DESPOTS
CHAPTER IV. THE REPUBLICS
CHAPTER V. THE FLORENTINE HISTORIANS
CHAPTER VI 'THE PRINCE' OF MACHIAVELLI
CHAPTER VII. THE POPES OF THE RENAISSANCE
CHAPTER VIII. THE CHURCH AND MORALITY
CHAPTER IX. SAVONAROLA
CHAPTER X. CHARLES VIII
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX II
APPENDIX III
APPENDIX IV
APPENDIX V
Volume 2
Table of Contents
PREFACE[1]
CHAPTER I. THE MEN OF THE RENAISSANCE
CHAPTER II. FIRST PERIOD OF HUMANISM
CHAPTER III. FIRST PERIOD OF HUMANISM
CHAPTER IV. SECOND PERIOD OF HUMANISM
CHAPTER V. SECOND PERIOD OF HUMANISM
CHAPTER VI. THIRD PERIOD OF HUMANISM
CHAPTER VII. FOURTH PERIOD OF HUMANISM
CHAPTER VIII. LATIN POETRY
CHAPTER IX. CONCLUSION
FOOTNOTES
Volume 3
Table of Contents
PREFACE[1]
FOOTNOTES:
CHAPTER I--THE PROBLEM FOR THE FINE ARTS
Art in Italy and Greece—The Leading Phase of Culture—Æsthetic Type of Literature—Painting the Supreme Italian Art—Its Task in the Renaissance—Christian and Classical Traditions—Sculpture for the Ancients—Painting for the Romance Nations—Mediæval Faith and Superstition—The Promise of Painting—How far can the Figurative Arts express Christian Ideas?—Greek and Christian Religion—Plastic Art incapable of solving the Problem—A more Emotional Art needed—Place of Sculpture in the Renaissance—Painting and Christian Story—Humanization of Ecclesiastical Ideas by Art—Hostility of the Spirit of True Piety to Art—Compromises effected by the Church—Fra Bartolommeo's S. Sebastian—Irreconcilability of Art and Theology, Art and Philosophy—Recapitulation—Art in the end Paganises—Music—The Future of Painting after the Renaissance
FOOTNOTES:
CHAPTER II--ARCHITECTURE
Architecture of Mediæval Italy—Milan, Genoa, Venice—The Despots as Builders—Diversity of Styles—Local Influences—Lombard, Tuscan, Romanesque, Gothic—Italian want of feeling for Gothic—Cathedrals of Siena and Orvieto—Secular Buildings of the Middle Ages—Florence and Venice—Private Palaces—Public Halls—Palazzo della Signoria at Florence—Arnolfo di Cambio—S. Maria del Fiore—Brunelleschi's Dome—Classical Revival in Architecture—Roman Ruins—Three Periods in Renaissance Architecture—Their Characteristics—Brunelleschi—Alberti—Palace-building—Michellozzo—Decorative Work of the Revival—Bramante—Vitoni's Church of the Umiltà at Pistoja—Palazzo del Te—Villa Farnesina—Sansovino at Venice—Michael Angelo—The Building of S. Peter's—Palladio—The Palazzo della Ragione at Vicenza—Lombard Architects—Theorists and Students of Vitruvius—Vignola and Scamozzi—European Influence of the Palladian Style—Comparison of Scholars and Architects in relation to the Revival of Learning
CHAPTER III--SCULPTURE
Niccola Pisano—Obscurity of the Sources for a History of Early Italian Sculpture—Vasari's Legend of Pisano—Deposition from the Cross at Lucca—Study of Nature and the Antique—Sarcophagus at Pisa—Pisan Pulpit—Niccola's School—Giovanni Pisano—Pulpit in S. Andrea at Pistoja—Fragments of his work at Pisa—Tomb of Benedict XI. at Perugia—Bas-reliefs at Orvieto—Andrea Pisano—Relation of Sculpture to Painting—Giotto—Subordination of Sculpture to Architecture in Italy—Pisano's Influence in Venice—Balduccio of Pisa—Orcagna—The Tabernacle of Orsammichele—The Gates of the Florentine Baptistery—Competition of Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, and Della Quercia—Comparison of Ghiberti's and Brunelleschi's Trial-pieces—Comparison of Ghiberti and Della Quercia—The Bas-reliefs of S. Petronio—Ghiberti's Education—His Pictorial Style in Bas-relief—His Feeling for the Antique—Donatello—Early Visit to Rome—Christian Subjects—Realistic Treatment—S. George and David—Judith—Equestrian Statue of Gattamelata—Influence of Donatello's Naturalism—Andrea Verocchio—His David—Statue of Colleoni—Alessandro Leopardi—Lionardo's Statue of Francesco Sforza—The Pollajuoli—Tombs of Sixtus IV. and Innocent VIII.—Luca della Robbia—His Treatment of Glazed Earthenware—Agostino di Duccio—The Oratory of S. Bernardino at Perugia—Antonio Rossellino—Matteo Civitali—Mino da Fiesole—Benedetto da Majano—Characteristics and Masterpieces of this Group—Sepulchral Monuments—Andrea Contucci's Tombs in S. Maria del Popolo—Desiderio da Settignano—Sculpture in S. Francesco at Rimini—Venetian Sculpture—Verona—Guido Mazzoni of Modena—Certosa of Pavia—Colleoni Chapel at Bergamo—Sansovino at Venice—Pagan Sculpture—Michael Angelo's Scholars—Baccio Bandinelli—Bartolommeo Ammanati—Cellini—Gian Bologna—Survey of the History of Renaissance Sculpture
CHAPTER IV--PAINTING
Distribution of Artistic Gifts in Italy—Florence and Venice—Classification by Schools—Stages in the Evolution of Painting—Cimabue—The Rucellai Madonna—Giotto—His widespread Activity—The Scope of his Art—Vitality—Composition—Colour—Naturalism—Healthiness—Frescoes at Assisi and Padua—Legend of S. Francis—The Giotteschi—Pictures of the Last Judgment—Orcagna in the Strozzi Chapel—Ambrogio Lorenzetti at Pisa—Dogmatic Theology—Cappella degli Spagnuoli—Traini's "Triumph, of S. Thomas Aquinas"—Political Doctrine expressed in Fresco—Sala della Pace at Siena—Religious Art in Siena and Perugia—The Relation of the Giottesque Painters to the Renaissance
CHAPTER V--PAINTING
Mediæval Motives exhausted—New Impulse toward Technical Perfection—Naturalists in Painting—Intermediate Achievement needed for the Great Age of Art—Positive Spirit of the Fifteenth Century—Masaccio—The Modern Manner—Paolo Uccello—Perspective—Realistic Painters—The Model—Piero della Francesca—His Study of Form—Resurrection at Borgo San Sepolcro—Melozzo da Forli—Squarcione at Padua—Gentile da Fabriano—Fra Angelico—Benozzo Gozzoli—His Decorative Style—Lippo Lippi—Frescoes at Prato and Spoleto—Filippino Lippi—Sandro Botticelli—His Value for the Student of Renaissance Fancy—His Feeling for Mythology—Piero di Cosimo—Domenico Ghirlandajo—In what sense he sums up the Age—Prosaic Spirit—Florence hitherto supreme in Painting—Extension of Art Activity throughout Italy—Medicean Patronage
CHAPTER VI--PAINTING
Two Periods in the True Renaissance—Andrea Mantegna—His Statuesque Design—His Naturalism—Roman Inspiration—Triumph of Julius Cæsar—Bas-reliefs—Luca Signorelli—The Precursor of Michael Angelo—Anatomical Studies—Sense of Beauty—The Chapel of S. Brizio at Orvieto—Its Arabesques and Medallions—Degrees in his Ideal—Enthusiasm for Organic Life—Mode of treating Classical Subjects—Perugino—His Pietistic Style—His Formalism—The Psychological Problem of his Life—Perugino's Pupils—Pinturicchio—At Spello and Siena—Francia—Fra Bartolommeo—Transition to the Golden Age—Lionardo da Vinci—The Magician of the Renaissance—Raphael—The Melodist—Correggio—The Faun—Michael Angelo—The Prophet
CHAPTER VII--VENETIAN PAINTING
Painting bloomed late in Venice—Conditions offered by Venice to Art—Shelley and Pietro Aretino—Political circumstances of Venice—Comparison with Florence—The Ducal Palace—Art regarded as an adjunct to State Pageantry—Myth of Venezia—Heroic Deeds of Venice—Tintoretto's Paradise and Guardi's Picture of a Ball—Early Venetian Masters of Murano—Gian Bellini—Carpaccio's little Angels—The Madonna of S. Zaccaria—Giorgione—Allegory, Idyll, Expression of Emotion—The Monk at the Clavichord—Titian, Tintoret, and Veronese—Tintoretto's attempt to dramatise Venetian Art—Veronese's Mundane Splendour—Titian's Sophoclean Harmony—Their Schools—Further Characteristics of Veronese—of Tintoretto—His Imaginative Energy—Predominant Poetry—Titian's Perfection of Balance—Assumption of Madonna—Spirit common to the Great Venetians
CHAPTER VIII--LIFE OF MICHAEL ANGELO
Contrast of Michael Angelo and Cellini—Parentage and Boyhood of Michael Angelo—Work with Ghirlandajo—Gardens of S. Marco—The Medicean Circle—Early Essays in Sculpture—Visit to Bologna—First Visit to Rome—The "Pietà" of S. Peter's—Michael Angelo as a Patriot and a Friend of the Medici—Cartoon for the Battle of Pisa—Michael Angelo and Julius II.—The Tragedy of the Tomb—Design for the Pope's Mausoleum—Visit to Carrara—Flight from Rome—Michael Angelo at Bologna—Bronze Statue of Julius—Return to Rome—Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel—Greek and Modern Art—Raphael—Michael Angelo and Leo X.—S. Lorenzo—The new Sacristy—Circumstances under which it was designed and partly finished—Meaning of the Allegories—Incomplete state of Michael Angelo's Marbles—Paul III.—The "Last Judgment"—Critiques of Contemporaries—The Dome of S. Peter's—Vittoria Colonna—Tommaso Cavalieri—Personal Habits of Michael Angelo—His Emotional Nature—Last Illness
CHAPTER IX--LIFE OF BENVENUTO CELLINI
His Fame—His Autobiography—Its Value for the Student of History, Manners, and Character, in the Renaissance—Birth, Parentage, and Boyhood—Flute-playing—Apprenticeship to Marcone—Wanderjahr—The Goldsmith's Trade at Florence—Torrigiani and England—Cellini leaves Florence for Rome—Quarrel with the Guasconti—Homicidal Fury—Cellini a Law to Himself—Three Periods in his Manhood—Life in Rome—Diego at the Banquet—Renaissance Feeling for Physical Beauty—Sack of Rome—Miracles in Cellini's Life—His Affections—Murder of his Brother's Assassin—Sanctuary—Pardon and Absolution—Incantation in the Colosseum—First Visit to France—Adventures on the Way—Accused of Stealing Crown Jewels in Rome—Imprisonment in the Castle of S. Angelo—The Governor—Cellini's Escape—His Visions—The Nature of his Religion—Second Visit to France—The Wandering Court—Le Petit Nesle—Cellini in the French Law Courts—Scene at Fontainebleau—Return to Florence—Cosimo de' Medici as a Patron—Intrigues of a petty Court—Bandinelli—The Duchess—Statue of Perseus—End of Cellini's Life—Cellini and Machiavelli
CHAPTER X--THE EPIGONI
Full Development and Decline of Painting—Exhaustion of the old Motives—Relation of Lionardo to his Pupils—His Legacy to the Lombard School—Bernardino Luini—Gaudenzio Ferrari—The Devotion of the Sacri Monti—The School of Raphael—Nothing left but Imitation—Unwholesome Influences of Rome—Giulio Romano—Michael Angelesque Mannerists—Misconception of Michael Angelo—Correggio founds no School—Parmigianino—Macchinisti—The Bolognese—After-growth of Art in Florence—Andrea del Sarto—His Followers—Pontormo—Bronzino—Revival of Painting in Siena—Sodoma—His Influence on Pacchia, Beccafumi, Peruzzi—Garofalo and Dosso Dossi at Ferrari—The Campi at Cremona—Brescia and Bergamo—The Decadence in the second half of the Sixteenth Century—The Counter-Reformation—Extinction of the Renaissance Impulse
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I. The Pulpits of Pisa and Ravello
APPENDIX II. Michael Angelo's Sonnets
APPENDIX III. Chronological Tables of the Principal Artists mentioned in this Volume
ARCHITECTS
SCULPTORS
PAINTERS
Volume 4
Table of Contents
PREFACE
CHAPTER I. THE ORIGINS
CHAPTER II. THE TRIUMVIRATE
CHAPTER III. THE TRANSITION
CHAPTER IV. POPULAR SECULAR POETRY
CHAPTER V. POPULAR RELIGIOUS POETRY
CHAPTER VI. LORENZO DE’ MEDICI AND POLIZIANO
CHAPTER VII. PULCI AND BOIARDO
CHAPTER VIII. ARIOSTO
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I. Note on Italian Heroic Verse
APPENDIX II. Ten Sonnets translated from Folgore da San Gemignano
ON THE ARMING OF A KNIGHT
THE CRY FOR COURTESY
ON THE GHIBELLINE VICTORIES
TO THE PISANS
ON DISCRETION
ON DISORDERED WILL
APPENDIX III. Translations from Alesso Donati
THE NUN
THE LOVERS
THE GIRL
APPENDIX IV. Jacopone’s Presepio, Corrotto, and Cantico dell’Amore. Superardente, Translated into English Verse
THREE POEMS ATTRIBUTED TO JACOPONE DA TODI
THE PRESEPIO
THE CORROTTO
APPENDIX V. Passages translated from the Morgante Maggiore of Pulci
MORGANTE XXV. 119
MORGANTE XXV. 135
MORGANTE XXV. 282
MORGANTE XXV. 73
MORGANTE XXV. 115
MORGANTE XXVII. 6
MORGANTE XXVIII. 138
APPENDIX VI. Translations of Elegiac Verses by Girolamo Benivieni and. Michelangelo Buonarroti
FOOTNOTES
Volume 5
Table of Contents
CHAPTER IX. THE ORLANDO FURIOSO
CHAPTER X. THE NOVELLIERI
CHAPTER XI. THE DRAMA
CHAPTER XII. PASTORAL AND DIDACTIC POETRY
CHAPTER XIII. THE PURISTS
CHAPTER XIV. BURLESQUE POETRY AND SATIRE
CHAPTER XV. PIETRO ARETINO
CHAPTER XVI. HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY
CHAPTER XVII. CONCLUSION
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I. Italian Comic Prologues
APPENDIX II. Passages translated from Folengo and Berni, which illustrate. the Lutheran opinions of the Burlesque Poets
ORLANDINO VI. 41
ORLANDINO VIII. 22
ORLANDINO VIII. 73
ORLANDO INNAMORATO, CANTO XX. THE SUPPRESSED INDUCTION
APPENDIX III. On Palmieri's "Città di Vita." (To illustrate Part I. p. 171.)
FOOTNOTES
Volume 6 - 7
Table of Contents
PART I
PREFACE
CHAPTER I. THE SPANISH HEGEMONY
CHAPTER II. THE PAPACY AND THE TRIDENTINE COUNCIL
CHAPTER III. THE INQUISITION AND THE INDEX
CHAPTER IV. THE COMPANY OF JESUS
CHAPTER V. SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC MORALS: PART I
The Lady of Monza
Lucrezia Buonvisi
The Cenci
The Massimi
Vittoria Accoramboni
The Duchess of Palliano
Wife-Murders
The Medici
CHAPTER VI. SOCIAL AND DOMESTIC MORALS: PART II
Cecco Bibboni
Ambrogio Tremazzi[227]
Lodovico dall'Armi
Brigands, Pirates, Plague
The Proletariate
FOOTNOTES:
PART II
CHAPTER VII. TORQUATO TASSO
CHAPTER VIII. THE GERUSALEMME LIBERATA
(thelô legein Atreidas, thelô de Kadmon adein, ha barbitos de chordais Erôta mounon êchei.)
CHAPTER IX. GIORDANO BRUNO
CHAPTER X. FRA PAOLO SARPI
CHAPTER XI. GUARINO, MARINO, CHIABRERA, TASSONI
CHAPTER XII. PALESTRINA AND THE ORIGINS OF MODERN MUSIC
CHAPTER XIII. THE BOLOGNESE SCHOOL OF PAINTERS
CHAPTER XIV. CONCLUSION
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FOOTNOTES
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John Addington Symonds
All 7 Volumes
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Then came the third age of scholarship—the age of the critics, philologers, and printers. What had been collected by Poggio and Aurispa had now to be explained by Ficino, Poliziano, and Erasmus. They began their task by digesting and arranging the contents of the libraries. There were then no short cuts to learning, no comprehensive lexicons, no dictionaries of antiquities, no carefully prepared thesauri of mythology and history. Each student had to hold in his brain the whole mass of classical erudition. The text and the canon of Homer, Plato, Aristotle, and the tragedians had to be decided. Greek type had to be struck. Florence, Venice, Basle, Lyons, and Paris groaned with printing presses. The Aldi, the Stephani, and Froben toiled by night and day, employing scores of scholars, men of supreme devotion and of mighty brain, whose work it was to ascertain the right reading of sentences, to accentuate, to punctuate, to commit to the press, and to place beyond the reach of monkish hatred or of envious time that everlasting solace of humanity which exists in the classics. All subsequent achievements in the field of scholarship sink into insignificance beside the labors of these men, who needed genius, enthusiasm, and the sympathy of Europe for the accomplishment of their titanic task. Virgil was printed in 1470, Homer in 1488, Aristotle in 1498, Plato in 1513. They then became the inalienable heritage of mankind. But what vigils, what anxious expenditure of thought, what agonies of doubt and expectation, were endured by those heroes of humanizing scholarship, whom we are apt to think of merely as pedants! Which of us now warms and thrills with emotion at hearing the name of Aldus Manutius, or of Henricus Stephanus, or of Johannes Froben? Yet this we surely ought to do; for to them we owe in a great measure the freedom of our spirit, our stores of intellectual enjoyment, our command of the past, our certainty of the future of human culture.
This third age in the history of the Renaissance Scholarship may be said to have reached its climax in Erasmus; for by this time Italy had handed on the torch of learning to the northern nations. The publication of his "Adagia" in 1500, marks the advent of a more critical and selective spirit, which from that date onward has been gradually gaining strength in the modern mind. Criticism, in the true sense of accurate testing and sifting, is one of the points which distinguish the moderns from the ancients; and criticism was developed by the process of assimilation, comparison, and appropriation, which was necessary in the growth of scholarship. The ultimate effect of this recovery of classic literature was, once and for all, to liberate the intellect. The modern world was brought into close contact with the free virility of the ancient world, and emancipated from the thralldom of unproved traditions. The force to judge and the desire to create were generated. The immediate result in the sixteenth century was an abrupt secession of the learned, not merely from monasticism, but also from the true spirit of Christianity. The minds of the Italians assimilated Paganism. In their hatred of mediæval ignorance, in their loathing of cowled and cloistered fools, they flew to an extreme, and affected the manner of an irrevocable past. This extravagance led of necessity to a reaction—in the north to Puritanism, in the south to what has been termed the Counter-Reformation effected under Spanish influences in the Latin Church. But Christianity, that most precious possession of the modern world, was never seriously imperiled by the classical enthusiasm of the Renaissance; nor, on the other hand, was the progressive emancipation of the reason materially retarded by the reaction it produced.
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