Оглавление
John O'Brien. Earth Materials
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Earth Materials
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
Chapter 1 Earth materials and the geosphere
1.1 EARTH MATERIALS
1.2 MINERALS AND MINERALOIDS
1.2.1 Rocks
1.3 THE GEOSPHERE
1.3.1 Compositional layers
1.3.2 Mechanical layers
1.4 DETAILED MODEL OF THE GEOSPHERE. 1.4.1 Earth's crust
Oceanic crust
Continental crust
1.4.2 Earth's Mantle
Upper Mantle and Transition Zone
The lower mantle (mesosphere)
1.4.3 Earth's core
1.5 GLOBAL TECTONICS. 1.5.1 Introduction
1.5.2 Divergent plate boundaries
Continental rifts
Oceanic ridge system
1.5.3 Convergent plate boundaries
Subduction zones
Continental collisions
1.5.4 Transform plate boundaries
1.6 HOTSPOTS AND MANTLE CONVECTION
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 2 Atoms, elements, bonds, and coordination polyhedra
2.1 ATOMS
2.1.1 The nucleus, atomic number, atomic mass number, and isotopes
2.1.2 The electron cloud
2.2 THE PERIODIC TABLE
2.2.1 Rows (periods) on the periodic table
2.2.2 Ionization
Box 2.1 Ionization energy
2.2.3 Ionization behavior of columns (groups) on the periodic table
2.2.4 Atomic and ionic radii
2.3 CHEMICAL BONDS. 2.3.1 The basics
2.3.2 Ionic (electrostatic) bonds
2.3.3 Covalent (electron‐sharing) bonds
2.3.4 Metallic bonds
2.3.5 Transitional (hybrid) bonds
2.3.6 Van der Waals and hydrogen bonds
2.4 PAULING'S RULES AND COORDINATION POLYHEDRA. 2.4.1 Pauling's rules and radius ratios
2.4.2 Electrostatic valency
2.5 THE CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS
2.5.1 The basics: silica tetrahedral linkage
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 3 Atomic substitution, phase diagrams, and isotopes
3.1 ATOMIC (IONIC) SUBSTITUTION
3.1.1 Simple ionic substitution
3.1.2 Coupled (paired) ionic substitution
3.1.3 Limited ionic substitution
3.2 PHASE STABILITY (EQUILIBRIUM) DIAGRAMS
3.2.1 The phase rule
3.2.2 One component phase diagram: silica polymorphs
3.2.3 Two component phase diagram: plagioclase
3.2.4 Two component phase diagram: diopside–anorthite
3.2.5 Two‐component phase diagram: albite–orthoclase
3.2.6 Two component phase diagram: nepheline–silica
3.2.7 Two component phase diagram: forsterite–silica
3.3 ISOTOPES
3.3.1 Stable isotopes
Oxygen isotopes
Box 3.1 The Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum
Carbon isotopes
3.3.2 Radioactive isotopes
Box 3.2 Radon and lung cancer
Age determinations using radioactive decay series
Uranium–lead systematics
Rubidium–strontium systematics
Potassium–argon systematics
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 4 Crystallography
4.1 CRYSTALLINE SUBSTANCES
4.1.1 Crystals and crystal faces
Motifs and nodes
4.2 SYMMETRY OPERATIONS. 4.2.1 Simple symmetry operations
Translation
Rotation
Reflection
Inversion
4.2.2 Compound symmetry operations
4.3 TWO‐DIMENSIONAL MOTIFS AND LATTICES (MESHES)
4.3.1 Plane point groups
4.3.2 Plane lattices and unit meshes
4.3.3 Plane lattice groups
4.4 THREE‐DIMENSIONAL MOTIFS AND LATTICES
4.4.1 Space point groups
4.4.2 Bravais lattices, unit cells, and crystal systems
4.5 CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
4.5.1 Crystallographic axes
4.5.2 Crystal forms
4.6 INDEXING PLANES IN CRYSTALS. 4.6.1 Axial ratios
4.6.2 Crystal planes and crystallographic axes
4.6.3 Unit faces or planes
4.6.4 Weiss parameters
4.6.5 Miller indices
4.6.6 Form indices
4.6.7 Common crystal forms in each system. Isometric (cubic) system forms
Tetragonal system forms
Hexagonal system (hexagonal division) forms
Trigonal system (hexagonal system, trigonal division) forms
Orthorhombic crystal system
Monoclinic crystal system
Triclinic crystal system
4.7 TWINNED CRYSTALS
4.8 CRYSTAL DEFECTS
Box 4.1 Frenkel and Schottky defects
4.8.1 Point defects
4.8.2 Line defects
4.8.3 Planar defects
Box 4.2 Defects and plastic deformation in crystals
4.9 POLYMORPHS AND PSUEDOMORPHS. 4.9.1 Polymorphs
Reconstructive transformations
Displacive transformations
Order–disorder transformations
4.9.2 Pseudomorphs
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 5 Mineral properties and rock‐forming minerals
5.1 MINERAL FORMATION
5.2 CRYSTAL HABITS. 5.2.1 Habits of individual crystals
5.2.2 Habits of mineral crystal aggregates
5.3 MACROSCOPIC MINERAL PROPERTIES
5.3.1 Static and mechanical properties
Hardness
Density, specific gravity, and weight
Tenacity
Growth surfaces and breakage surfaces
Crystal faces
Cleavage surfaces
Fracture surfaces
Parting surfaces
Other static or mechanical properties
Striations
Taste
Feel
Smell
Additional mineral properties
5.3.2 Optical and electromagnetic properties
Diaphaneity (opacity)
Luster
Metallic and related lusters
Nonmetallic lusters
Streak
Color
Play of colors
Luminescence
Magnetism
Electrical properties
5.4 SILICATE MINERALS
5.4.1 Nesosilicates (orthosilicates)
5.4.2 Sorosilicates (disilicates)
5.4.3 Cyclosilicates
5.4.4 Inosilicates
Single‐chain inosilicates: pyroxenes and pyroxenoids
Double‐chain inosilicates: amphibole group
5.4.5 Phyllosilicates
Serpentine, talc, and chlorite group minerals
Mica group minerals
Clay group minerals
5.4.6 Tectosilicates
Silica group
Feldspar group
Feldspathoid group
Zeolite group
5.5 NONSILICATE MINERALS
5.5.1 Native elements
Native metals
Semi‐metals
Nonmetals
5.5.2 Halides
5.5.3 Sulfides
5.5.4 Oxides
5.5.5 Hydroxides and oxyhydroxides
5.5.6 Carbonates
5.5.7 Borates
5.5.8 Sulfates
5.5.9 Phosphates
5.5.10 Tungstates and molybdates
5.5.11 Other nonsilicate minerals
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 6 Optical identification of minerals
6.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM. 6.1.1 Electromagnetic radiation
6.1.2 The electromagnetic spectrum
6.2 ESSENTIALS OF OPTICAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
6.2.1 Light and crystals
Reflection, refractive index, refraction, and dispersion
Diaphaneity and color
Isotropic and anisotropic substances
6.2.2 The petrographic microscope
The illuminator (light source)
The substage assembly
The microscope stage
The superstage assembly
The eyepiece or ocular head
The focusing knobs and free working distance
6.2.3 Modes of optical investigation
Grain mounts
Thin‐sections
Plane polarized light mode
Crossed‐polars mode
6.2.4 Conoscopic mode
6.3 THE OPTICAL INDICATRIX, INTERFERENCE FIGURES AND OPTIC SIGN DETERMINATIONS
6.3.1 The optical indicatrix
6.3.2 The isotropic indicatrix
6.3.3 The uniaxial indicatrix
The ordinary and extraordinary rays
The optic sign
Uniaxial interference figures
Uniaxial optic axis figure and optic sign determination
Optic normal or flash figure
6.3.4 The biaxial indicatrix
6.3.5 Biaxial interference figures
Acute bisectrix figures
Optic axis figures
Obtuse bisectrix figure
Biaxial flash (optic normal) figure
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 7 Igneous rock texture, composition, and classification
7.1 MAGMA AND IGNEOUS ROCKS
7.1.1 How do we classify igneous rocks?
7.1.2 Percent silica
7.1.3 Color index
7.1.4 Texture
Degree of crystallinity
Crystal faces
7.2 CRYSTALLINE IGNEOUS TEXTURES
7.2.1 Pegmatitic textures
7.2.2 Phaneritic textures
7.2.3 Aphanitic textures
7.2.4 Porphyritic textures
7.2.5 The origin of crystalline textures
7.2.6 Textural equilibration
7.3 NONCRYSTALLINE TEXTURES
7.3.1 Glassy textures
7.3.2 Vesicular textures
7.3.3 Pyroclastic textures
7.4 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
7.4.1 Major elements
7.4.2 Minor and trace elements
Box 7.1 Trace elements
7.4.3 Element compatibility
7.5 MINERAL COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
7.5.1 Major minerals
7.5.2 Accessory minerals
7.6 MINERAL COMPOSITION AND TERMINOLOGY
7.6.1 Determination of modal and normative mineral composition in igneous rocks
Modal composition
Normative composition
7.6.2 Descriptive terminology based on chemical composition
Abundance of silica (SiO2)
Relative abundance of aluminum oxide (Al2O3)
7.7 IUGS IGNEOUS ROCK CLASSIFICATION
7.7.1 IUGS plutonic rock classification
7.7.2 IUGS gabbroic rock classification
7.7.3 IUGS ultramafic rock classification
7.7.4 IUGS volcanic rock classification
7.7.5 IUGS classification drawbacks
7.7.6 Total alkali‐silica (TAS) classification
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 8 Magma and intrusive structures
8.1 ROCK MELTING
8.1.1 Equilibrium melting
8.1.2 Fractional (disequilibrium) melting
8.2 FACTORS IN ANATEXIS AND INITIAL MELT COMPOSITION
8.2.1 Increasing temperature
8.2.2 Decreasing pressure
8.2.3 Volatile induced melting
8.2.4 Partial melting and melt composition
8.3 DIVERSIFICATION: DIFFERENTIATION, MIXING AND ASSIMILATION PROCESSES
8.3.1 Differentiation processes
8.3.2 Open system diversification processes
8.4 MAGMA SERIES
8.4.1 Calc‐alkaline magma series
8.4.2 Tholeiite magma series
8.4.3 Alkaline magma series
8.4.4 Bimodal magmas
8.5 VARIATION DIAGRAMS
8.6 INTRUSIVE STRUCTURES
8.6.1 Batholiths and stocks
8.6.2 Concordant plutonic structures
8.6.3 Discordant plutonic structures: necks, diatremes, and dikes
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 9 Volcanic features and landforms
9.1 VOLCANOES
9.1.1 Craters, central vents, and fissure vents
9.1.2 Calderas
9.2 VOLCANO CLASSIFCATION, FEATURES, AND SETTINGS
9.2.1 Flood basalts
9.2.2 Ocean ridge fissure eruptions
9.2.3 Shield volcanoes
9.2.4 Pyroclastic cone volcanoes
Box 9.1 Hawaii 2018 eruption
9.2.5 Composite volcanoes
Box 9.2 (GD): Paricutin
Box 9.3 A tale of two cities: past and future?
9.2.6 Rhyolite caldera complexes
9.2.7 Phreatomagmatic and phreatic eruptions
9.3 CLASSIFIYING VOLCANIC EXPLOSIVITY
9.3.1 Quiescent eruptions
9.3.2 Explosive eruptions
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 10. Igneous rock associations
10.1 PETROTECTONIC ASSOCIATIONS
10.2 DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
10.2.1 Mid ocean ridge basalts (MORB)
10.3 CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
Box 10.1 Basalt discrimination using trace elements
10.3.1 Island arcs
Box 10.2 Tonalite, trondhjemite and granodiorite association (TTG)
10.3.2 Back arc basins
10.3.3 Continental margin arcs
10.3.4 Continental collision zones
Box 10.3 Granite classification
10.3.5 Alpine orogenic complexes
10.3.6 Alaska‐type (zoned) intrusions
10.4 INTRAPLATE IGNEOUS ACTIVITY
10.4.1 Oceanic intraplate magmatism
Ocean island basalts (OIB)
Oceanic flood basalt (OFB) plateaus
10.4.2 Continental intraplate igneous activity
Continental flood basalts
10.4.3 Continental rifts
10.4.4 Bimodal volcanism
10.4.5 Layered mafic‐ultramafic intrusions
10.4.6 Anorthosites, komatiites, and kimberlites
10.4.7 Lamprophyres and lamproites
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 11 Weathering, sediment production, and soils
11.1 WEATHERING
11.1.1 Disintegration
Joint formation
Frost action
Biological processes in disintegration
Disintegration and decomposition
11.1.2 Decomposition
Dissolution
Ion exchange
Box 11.1 Karst development and its implications
Hydrolysis
Hydration and dehydration
Oxidation
Organic decomposition and chelation
11.2 DISSOLVED SOLIDS
11.3 DETRITAL SEDIMENTS
Box 11.2 People and Earth materials: mineral water
11.3.1 Resistates and chemical stability
Chemical stability of minerals
Rate and duration of decomposition
11.3.2 New minerals
Clay minerals
Insoluble iron and manganese oxides and hydroxides
Highly insoluble aluminum oxides and hydroxides
Other common soil minerals
11.4 SOILS
11.4.1 The importance of soils
11.4.2 Soil layers and horizons
11.4.3 Soil classifications
Agricultural classification of soils
Engineering classification of soils
11.4.4 Soil mechanics
Soil strength
Soil sensitivity
Box 11.3 Liquefaction and the Van Norman Dam
Shrink–swell potential
Compressibility
Porosity
Permeability
11.4.5 Buried soils and paleosols
Recognition of paleosols
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 12 The sedimentary cycle: Erosion, transportation, deposition, sedimentary structures, and environments
12.1 SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
12.2 THE SEDIMENTARY CYCLE
12.3 STRATIFICATION AND SEDIMENTARY ENVIRONMENTS
12.4 AGENTS OF EROSION, SEDIMENT DISPERSION AND DEPOSITION
12.4.1 Water‐deposited sediments
Entrainment, transportation, and deposition
Unidirectional flow
Oscillatory flow
12.4.2 Wind (eolian) and wind‐deposited sediments
12.4.3 Glaciers and glacial sediments
Box 12.1 Global warming, glaciers, and sea‐level rise
12.4.4 Mass (sediment gravity) flows and their deposits
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 13 Detrital sediments and sedimentary rocks
13.1 TEXTURES OF DETRITAL SEDIMENTS
13.1.1 Particle size
13.1.2 Textural classification of detrital sediments
13.1.3 Central measures
13.1.4 Sorting
13.1.5 Particle shape
Sphericity and roundness
13.1.6 Porosity and permeability
13.1.7 Textural maturity
13.2 GRAVELSTONES
13.2.1 Gravelstone classification
13.2.2 Gravelstone particle shape
13.2.3 Gravelstone framework
13.2.4 Gravelstone composition
13.2.5 Gravelstone provenance
Box 13.1 In greater depth: using conglomerate clasts to document slip on faults
13.3 SANDSTONES
13.3.1 Sandstone classification
13.3.2 Sandstone provenance
Box 13.2 Appalachian sources for western sandstones
13.4 MUDROCKS
13.4.1 Mudrock textures and structures
13.4.2 Mudrock composition and color
13.4.3 Mudrock deposition
13.4.4 Distinctive mudrock varieties. Bentonites
Carbonaceous mudrocks
13.5 DIAGENESIS OF DETRITAL SEDIMENTS
13.5.1 Compaction and pressure solution
13.5.2 Dissolution and cementation
Silica cements
Carbonate cements
Iron‐rich cements
Rarer cements
13.5.3 Additional diagenetic processes
13.5.4 Diagenetic structures
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 14 Biochemical sedimentary rocks
14.1 INTRODUCTION
14.2 CARBONATE SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
14.2.1 Carbonate mineralogy
14.2.2 Conditions for carbonate accumulation
14.2.3 Components of carbonate rocks
Grains or allochems
Skeletal particles: characteristics, formation, and occurrence
Ooids: characteristics, formation and occurrence
Limeclasts: characteristics, formation, and occurrence
Peloids: characteristics, formation, and occurrence
Carbonate mud or micrite: characteristics, formation, and occurrence
Organically bound accumulations
14.2.4 Classification of carbonate rocks
Field classification
Dunham’s classification system
Folk’s classification system
14.2.5 Carbonate depositional environments
Nearshore (peritidal) complexes
Mud‐dominated tidal flats
Beaches and dunes
Subtidal neritic zone
Subtidal above normal wave base
Subtidal between normal and stormwave base
Subtidal below storm wave base
Reefs and carbonate buildups
Box 14.1 Reefs through time
Sand shoals
Lagoons
Slope to basin carbonates
Distribution of carbonate environments in different tectonic‐physiographic settings
14.2.6 Carbonate diagenesis
Limestone diagenesis
Dolomitization
14.3 EVAPORITES
14.3.1 Marine evaporites
Box 14.2 When the Mediterranean dried up!
14.3.2 Lacustrine evaporites
14.4 SILICEOUS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
14.5 IRON‐RICH SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
14.5.1 Precambrian iron formations
14.5.2 Phanerozoic ironstones and otheriron‐rich rocks
14.6 SEDIMENTARY PHOSPHATES
14.7 COAL AND OTHER CARBON‐RICH SEDIMENTS AND MATERIALS
14.7.1 Coal
14.7.2 Petroleum: crude oil and natural gas
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 15 Metamorphism
15.1 METAMORPHISM: AN INTRODUCTION
15.1.1 Temperature
15.1.2 Pressure
15.1.3 Hydrothermal alteration
15.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMMON METAMORPHIC ROCKS
15.3 COMMON PROTOLITH COMPOSITIONS
15.3.1 Pelites
15.3.2 Quartzofeldspathic rocks
15.3.3 Calcareous rocks
15.3.4 Mafic to intermediate rocks
15.3.5 Ultramafic rocks
Box 15.1 Asbestos
15.4 METAMORPHIC PROCESSES
15.4.1 Cataclasis
15.4.2 Mylonitization
15.4.3 Diffusion
15.4.4 Pressure solution
15.4.5 Recrystallization
15.4.6 Neocrystallization
15.4.7 Differentiation
15.5 MAJOR TYPES OF METAMORPHISM
15.5.1 Impact (shock) metamorphism
15.5.2 Dynamic metamorphism
15.5.3 Contact metamorphism
15.5.4 Ocean floor metamorphism
15.5.5 Burial (static) metamorphism
15.5.6 Dynamothermal metamorphism
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 16 Metamorphism: stress, deformation, and structures
16.1 FORCE AND STRESS
Box 16.1 Principal stress planes and the teeter‐totter analogy
16.1.1 Uniform (isotropic) stress
16.1.2 Non‐uniform (anisotropic) stress
16.2 DEFORMATION
16.2.1 Principal strain axes
16.2.2 Strain kinematics
16.3 TYPES OF DEFORMATION
16.3.1 Elastic deformation
Box 16.2 Elastic deformation
16.3.2 Plastic deformation
16.3.3 Rupture deformation
16.4 DEFORMATION STYLES AND MATERIAL BEHAVIOR
16.4.1 Brittle behavior
16.4.2 Ductile behavior
16.4.3 The brittle–ductile transition
16.4.4 Mineral deformation behavior
16.4.5 Rock deformation behavior (competency)
16.5 BRITTLE STRUCTURES
16.6 DUCTILE STRUCTURES
16.6.1 Folds
16.6.2 Ductile shear zones
16.7 SMALL‐SCALE PLANAR AND LINEAR STRUCTURES
16.7.1 Planar fabrics
16.7.2 Linear fabrics
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 17 Texture and classification of metamorphic rocks
17.1 TEXTURES
17.1.1 Grain shape
17.1.2 Grain size
17.1.3 Grain orientation
17.1.4 Intergranular relationships
17.2 NON‐FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS
17.2.1 Hornfels
17.2.2 Metaquartzite
17.2.3 Marble
17.2.4 Skarn
17.2.5 Metabreccia
17.2.6 Metaconglomerates
17.2.7 Cataclasite
17.2.8 Pseudotachylite
17.2.9 Impactite
17.2.10 Anthracite coal
17.3 NON‐FOLIATED TO FOLIATED METAMORPHIC ROCKS
17.3.1 Stretched pebble metaconglomerate
17.3.2 Serpentinite
17.3.3 Soapstone
17.3.4 Greenstone
Box 17.1 Greenstone belts
17.3.5 Amphibolite
17.3.6 Granulite
17.3.7 Eclogite
17.4 METAMORPHIC ROCKS WITH FOLIATED TEXTURES
17.4.1 Slate
17.4.2 Phyllite
17.4.3 Schist
17.4.4 Gneiss
17.4.5 Migmatite
17.4.6 Ironstones
17.4.7 Mylonite
17.4.8 Tectonites
17.5 SHEAR SENSE INDICATORS
17.5.1 Grain tail complexes
17.5.2 Fracture patterns
17.5.3 S‐C foliations
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 18 Metamorphic zones, facies, and facies series
18.1 METAMORPHIC ZONES
18.1.1 Chlorite zone
18.1.2 Biotite zone
18.1.3 Almandine (garnet) zone
18.1.4 Staurolite zone
18.1.5 Kyanite zone
Sillimanite zone
18.2 METAMORPHIC FACIES
18.2.1 Hornfels facies
18.2.2 Zeolite facies
18.2.3 Prehnite–pumpellyite facies
18.2.4 Greenschist facies
18.2.5 Amphibolite facies
18.2.6 Granulite facies
18.2.7 Blueschist facies
18.2.8 Eclogite facies
18.3 METAMORPHIC FACIES SERIES
18.3.1 Contact facies series
18.3.2 Buchan facies series
18.3.3 Barrovian facies series
18.3.4 Sanbagawa facies series
18.3.5 Franciscan facies series
18.4 PHASE RULE, CHEMICAL REACTIONS, AND THREE‐COMPONENT PHASE DIAGRAMS
18.4.1 The phase rule and metamorphic minerals
18.4.2 Equilibrium mineral assemblage grids
18.4.3 Ternary diagrams
18.5 METAMORPHIC ROCKS AND PLATE TECTONICS
18.5.1 Metamorphism at divergent plate boundaries
Continental rift basin metamorphism
Ocean ridge metamorphism
18.5.2 Convergent plate boundaries
Ocean–ocean convergence
Ocean‐continent convergence: fold and thrust belts and foreland basins
Continent–continent collision
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Chapter 19 Mineral resources and hazards
19.1 ORE MINERALS
19.1.1 Igneous ore forming environments
19.1.2 Metamorphic ore forming environments
19.1.3 Sedimentary ore forming environments
19.1.4 Metals and alloys
19.2 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS AND ROCKS
19.2.1 Fertilizers and chemicals
19.2.2 Construction material
19.2.3 Manufacturing minerals
19.3 GEMS
19.4 MINERALS AND HEALTH
CONTENT ASSESSMENT
REFERENCES
Index
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