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Joseph R. Badick. Flight Theory and Aerodynamics
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
FLIGHT THEORY AND AERODYNAMICS. A Practical Guide for Operational Safety
Preface
About the Authors
About the Companion Website
1 Introduction to the Flight Environment. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION
BASIC QUANTITIES
EXAMPLES
Application 1.1
FORCES
MASS
EXAMPLE
SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
Scalar Addition
Vector Addition
Vector Resolution
MOMENTS
EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS
NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Newton’s First Law
Newton’s Second Law
EXAMPLE
Newton’s Third Law
LINEAR MOTION
EXAMPLE
ROTATIONAL MOTION
ENERGY AND WORK
EXAMPLE
Application 1.2
POWER
EXAMPLE
Application 1.3
FRICTION
EXAMPLE
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
2 Atmosphere, Altitude, and Airspeed Measurement. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Static Pressure
Temperature
Density
Application 2.1
Viscosity
ICAO STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
ALTITUDE MEASUREMENT
Indicated Altitude
Calibrated Altitude
True Altitude
Absolute Altitude
Pressure Altitude
Density Altitude
EXAMPLE
Application 2.2
CONTINUITY EQUATION
BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
AIRSPEED MEASUREMENT
Application 2.3
Indicated Airspeed
Calibrated Airspeed
Equivalent Airspeed
True Airspeed
EXAMPLE
Mach
EXAMPLE
Groundspeed
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
3 Structures, Airfoils, and Aerodynamic Forces. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
AIRCRAFT STRUCTURES
Primary Flight Controls. Ailerons
Elevator/Stabilator
Rudder
Canard
Secondary Flight Controls
Flaps
Leading Edge Devices
Spoilers and Speed Brakes
Trim Systems and Tabs
AIRFOILS
Airfoil Terminology
Definitions
Geometry Variables of Airfoils
Classification of Airfoils
Application 3.1
Development of Forces on Airfoils
Pressure Disturbances on Airfoils
Velocity and Static Pressure Changes about an Airfoil
AERODYNAMIC FORCE
Pressure Distribution on a Rotating Cylinder
AERODYNAMIC PITCHING MOMENTS
AERODYNAMIC CENTER
ACCIDENT BRIEF: AIR MIDWEST FLIGHT 5481
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
4 Lift. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
INTRODUCTION TO LIFT
ANGLE OF ATTACK
Angle of Attack Indicator
BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY
Coanda Effect
REYNOLDS NUMBER
ADVERSE PRESSURE GRADIENT
AIRFLOW SEPARATION
STALL
AERODYNAMIC FORCE EQUATIONS
LIFT EQUATION
Coefficient of Lift
Velocity
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
Lift Formula Summary
Application 4.1
AIRFOIL LIFT CHARACTERISTICS
EXAMPLE
HIGH COEFFICIENT OF LIFT DEVICES
EFFECT OF ICE AND FROST
LIFT DURING FLIGHT MANEUVERS
Lift During Turns
Lift During Climbs and Descents
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
5 Drag. Chapter Objectives
INDUCED DRAG
Application 5.1
Wingtip Vortices
Infinite Wing
Finite Wing
Induced Drag Summary
GROUND EFFECT
Airflow Alteration Around the Wing
Pitching Moments
Pitot–Static Influence
Ground Effect Summary
Application 5.2
LAMINAR FLOW AIRFOILS
PARASITE DRAG
Skin Friction Drag
Form Drag
Interference Drag
Leakage Drag
Parasite Drag Summary
DRAG EQUATION
Induced and Parasite Drag Calculations
TOTAL DRAG
LIFT‐TO‐DRAG RATIO
EXAMPLE
(L/D)max Summary
Drag Reduction
Winglets
Application 5.3
Reduction of Skin Friction Drag
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
6 Jet Aircraft Performance. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
THRUST‐PRODUCING AIRCRAFT
Turbine Engine Operation
THRUST‐REQUIRED CURVE
PRINCIPLES OF PROPULSION
THRUST‐AVAILABLE TURBOJET AIRCRAFT
Thrust Variation and rpm
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
FUEL FLOW
THRUST‐AVAILABLE/THRUST‐REQUIRED CURVES
ITEMS OF AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE. Straight and Level Flight
Climb Performance
Angle of Climb
Example
Rate of Climb
Example
Application 6.1
Endurance
Example
Specific Range
Wind Effect on Specific Range
Total Range
VARIATIONS IN THE THRUST‐REQUIRED CURVE
Weight Changes
Variation of Aircraft Performance – Weight Change. Straight and Level Flight
Angle of Climb
Rate of Climb
Example
Endurance
Specific Range
Example
Application 6.2
Configuration Changes
Example
Variation of Aircraft Performance – Configuration Change. Straight and Level Flight
Angle of Climb
Rate of Climb
Example
Endurance
Specific Range
Application 6.3
Altitude Changes
Variation of Aircraft Performance – Altitude Change. Straight and Level Flight
Angle of Climb
Rate of Climb
Endurance
Specific Range
Cruise–Climb Flight
Jet Performance Summary
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
7 Propeller Aircraft Performance. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
POWER AVAILABLE
Basic Propeller Principles
Fixed‐Pitch Propeller
Constant‐Speed Propeller
PRINCIPLES OF PROPULSION
POWER‐REQUIRED CURVES
Power Available Versus Velocity
Variations with Power and Altitude
Turboprops
Turbocharged Reciprocating Engines
Non‐turbocharged Reciprocating Engines
ITEMS OF AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE. Straight and Level Flight
Climb Performance
Angle of Climb
Example
Application 7.1
Rate of Climb
Example
Application 7.2
Endurance
Example
Application 7.3
Specific Range
Wind Effect on Specific Range
VARIATIONS IN THE POWER‐REQUIRED CURVE
Weight Changes
Variation of Aircraft Performance – Weight Change. Straight and Level Flight
Angle of Climb
Application 7.4
Rate of Climb
Example
Endurance
Specific Range
Configuration Change
Variation of Aircraft Performance – Configuration Change. Straight and Level Flight
Angle of Climb
Example
Rate of Climb
Application 7.5
Endurance
Specific Range
Altitude Changes
Variation of Aircraft Performance – Altitude Change. Straight and Level Flight
Angle of Climb/Rate of Climb
Application 7.6
Endurance
Specific Range
Propeller Performance Summary
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
8 Takeoff Performance. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Example
Application 8.1
NORMAL TAKEOFF
Crosswind Takeoff
Performance Takeoffs
Water Takeoffs
Performance Speeds – Normal Takeoff
IMPROPER LIFTOFF
Premature Takeoff in Ground Effect
Dangers of Over‐rotation
REJECTED TAKEOFFS
RTO V‐Speeds and Definitions
Single‐Engine Airplane
Multi‐Engine Airplane
INITIAL CLIMB
LINEAR MOTION
Example
FACTORS AFFECTING TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE
Weight Change
Example
Altitude
Example
Wind
Example
Application 8.2
Runway Surface
Runway Slope
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
9 Landing Performance. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Example
Application 9.1
PRELANDING PERFORMANCE. Gliding Flight
The Landing Approach
Stabilized Approaches
Approach Glide Paths
Approach Path A
Approach Path C
Approach Path B
NORMAL LANDING
Crosswind Landing
Performance Landings
IMPROPER LANDING PERFORMANCE
Improper Round Out
Bouncing and Ballooning
Porpoising
Rejected Landings (Go‐arounds)
HAZARDS OF HYDROPLANING
Dynamic Hydroplaning
Viscous Hydroplaning
Reverted Rubber Hydroplaning
LANDING DECELERATION, VELOCITY, AND DISTANCE. Forces on the Aircraft During Landing
Example
Application 9.2
Braking Techniques
Thrust Reversers
LANDING EQUATIONS. General Equation
Effect of Weight Change
Example
Effect of Altitude
Example
Application 9.3
Effect of Wind
Example
Runway Surface
Runway Slope
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
10 Slow‐Speed Flight. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
REGION OF REVERSED COMMAND
Thrust producers
Example
Power producers
STALLS
Stall Patterns
Elliptical Wing
Straight/Rectangular Wing
Swept Wing
Stall Warning Devices
Stall Recovery
Power‐Off Stall
Power‐On Stall
Accelerated Stall
Cross‐Control Stall
SPINS
Spin Warning
Entry
Incipient Phase
Developed Phase
Recovery Phase
Aerodynamic Characteristics of a Spin
Impact of Weight and Balance During a Spin
Spin Recovery
Application 10.1
HAZARDS DURING SLOW‐SPEED FLIGHT – LOW‐LEVEL WIND SHEAR
AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE IN LOW‐LEVEL WIND SHEAR. During Takeoff and Departure
During Approach to a Landing
Crosswind Burst Response
Turbulence Effects
Heavy Rain
HAZARDS DURING SLOW‐SPEED FLIGHT – WAKE TURBULENCE
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
11 Maneuvering Performance. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
GENERAL TURNING PERFORMANCE
Forces in Turns
LOAD FACTOR
Load Factors on an Aircraft in a Coordinated Turn
Effect of a Coordinated Banked Turn on Stall Speed
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
Application 11.1
THE V–G DIAGRAM (FLIGHT ENVELOPE)
Maneuver Speed and Limit Load Factor
EXAMPLE
Application 11.2
LOAD FACTOR AND FLIGHT MANEUVERS
Radius of Turn
EXAMPLE
Rate of Turn
EXAMPLE
Application 11.3
Vertical Loop
EXAMPLE
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
12 Longitudinal Stability and Control. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
DEFINITIONS. Equilibrium
Static Stability
Dynamic Stability
OSCILLATORY MOTION
WEIGHT AND BALANCE
Weight and Balance Theory
Effect of Weight on Flight Performance
Effect of Weight on Load Distribution
Application 12.1
AIRPLANE REFERENCE AXES
STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
The Pitching Moment Equation
Graphic Representation of Static Longitudinal Stability
Contribution of Aircraft Components to Pitch Stability. Wings
Fuselage
Engine and Engine Nacelles
Horizontal Stabilizer
Total Airplane
Static Margin and Neutral Point
Stick‐Fixed Versus Stick‐Free Stability
DYNAMIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY
PITCHING TENDENCIES IN A STALL
Low‐Tailed Aircraft
T‐Tail Aircraft
Explanation of Nose‐Up Pitch Following Stall in Swept‐Wing Aircraft. Three features affect the pitching tendency:
LONGITUDINAL CONTROL
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
13 Directional and Lateral Stability. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
STATIC DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
The Yawing Moment Equation
Graphic Representation of Static Directional Stability
Contribution of Aircraft Components to Yaw Stability. Wings
Engine Nacelles
Fuselage
Vertical Tail
Total Airplane
Rudder‐Fixed–Rudder‐Free Stability
Effect of High Angle of Attack
Yaw Damper
DIRECTIONAL CONTROL
Slipstream Rotation
Crosswind Takeoff and Landing
Asymmetrical Loading/Thrust
Intentional Slips
MULTI‐ENGINE FLIGHT PRINCIPLES
Flight Principles with One Engine Inoperative
VMC Considerations
LATERAL STABILITY AND CONTROL
STATIC LATERAL STABILITY
The Rolling Moment Equation
Graphic Representation of Static Lateral Stability
Contributions of Aircraft Components to Roll Stability. Wing Dihedral
Vertical Wing Position
Wing Sweepback
Forward Swept Wing
Vertical Tail
Engine
Complete Airplane
LATERAL CONTROL
DYNAMIC DIRECTIONAL AND LATERAL COUPLED EFFECTS
Roll Due to Yawing
Adverse Yaw
Types of Motion Resulting from Coupled Effects. Three types of airplane motion can result from the interaction of yaw and roll:
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
14 High‐Speed Flight. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
Regions of high‐speed flight have been arbitrarily named as follows:
THE SPEED OF SOUND
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
Application 14.1
Coffin Corner (Q Corner)
HIGH‐SUBSONIC FLIGHT
Normal Shock Wave Formation on Wings
DESIGN FEATURES FOR HIGH‐SUBSONIC FLIGHT
Thin Airfoil Sections
High‐Speed Subsonic Airfoils
Sweepback
Vortex Generators
High‐Speed Subsonic Control Surfaces
TRANSONIC FLIGHT
Wave Drag and Force Divergence
Mach Tuck
High‐Speed Mach Buffet
Control Surface Buzz and Flutter
SUPERSONIC FLIGHT
Oblique Shock Waves
EXAMPLE
Expansion Waves
Aerodynamic Forces in Supersonic Flight
Supersonic Airfoils
Wing Planform
Area Rule Drag Reduction
Control Effectiveness
Supersonic Engine Inlets
Aerodynamic Heating
Computational Fluid Dynamics and Computer‐Aided Design
SYMBOLS
KEY TERMS
PROBLEMS
15 Rotary‐Wing Flight Theory. CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
MOMENTUM THEORY OF LIFT
AIRFOIL SELECTION
FORCES ON ROTOR SYSTEM
THRUST DEVELOPMENT
HOVERING FLIGHT
Hovering Blade Velocity
Blade Twist
GROUND EFFECT
Torque
ROTOR SYSTEMS
Rigid Rotor
Semirigid Rotor (Seesaw or Teetering Hinge)
Fully Articulated Rotor
DISSYMMETRY OF LIFT IN FORWARD FLIGHT
Blade Flapping
Blade Lead and Lag
HIGH FORWARD SPEED PROBLEMS
Advancing Blade Compressibility
Retreating Blade Stall
Both advancing blade compressibility and retreating blade stall occur under similar conditions:
Gyroscopic Precession
HELICOPTER CONTROL
Rotor Head Control
Control of the Path
HELICOPTER POWER‐REQUIRED CURVES
Translational Lift
POWER SETTLING, SETTLING WITH POWER, AND VORTEX RING STATE
AUTOROTATION
DYNAMIC ROLLOVER
According to the FAA Helicopter Flying Handbook, the following conditions are most conducive to dynamic rollover for helicopters with counterclockwise rotor rotation:
PROBLEMS
Answers to Problems. CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 11
CHAPTER 12
CHAPTER 13
CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER 15
Bibliography
GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS
PERIODICALS
PERSONAL INTERVIEW
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
