Imagery and GIS

Оглавление

Kass Green. Imagery and GIS

Contents

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1. Introduction. Why Imagery and GIS?

Why Now?

Book Organization

Case Study of Sonoma County, California

Chapter 2. Thinking About Imagery. Introduction

What Is Imagery?

Imagery Data Structure

Imagery and GIS

Rasters versus Vectors

Characteristics of Rasters

Type

Bands

Cell Size

How Is Imagery Used in a GIS?

Image Classification — Turning Data into Map Information

Types of Maps Created from Imagery

Digital Elevation Models

Thematic Vector and Raster Maps

Feature Maps

Imagery Workflows

Chapter 3. Imagery Fundamentals. Introduction

Collection Characteristics

Sensors

Imaging Surfaces

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Film versus Digital Array Imaging Surfaces

Source of Energy: Active versus Passive Sensors

Wavelengths Sensed. Passive Sensors

Active Sensors

Lenses

Openings

Bodies

Sensor Summary

Platforms

Different Types of Platforms

Piloted or Unpiloted

Altitude

Speed

Stability

Agility

Power

Collection Characteristics

Spectral Resolution

Radiometric Resolution

Spatial Resolution

Viewing Angle

Temporal Resolution

Extent

Organizational Characteristics. Introduction

Pricing and Licensing

Access

Case Study — the Effects of Price and Licensing on the Use of Landsat Imagery

Summary — Practical Considerations

Chapter 4. Choosing and Accessing the Right Imagery

Selection Framework—What’s Required versus What’s Available

Will the imagery be used for visualization, or to make a map?

What is the smallest item to be identified on the ground?

What is the time frame of the project and its results?

What types of features need to be mapped?

What is the size, shape, and accessibility of the project area?

What are the requirements for spatial and spectral accuracy?

Will the imagery be shared with other organizations?

Is the imagery accessible?

What is the project budget?

Summary

Imagery Sources. Overview

ArcGIS Online

Commercial Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing Firms

Commercial Satellite Companies

Government Agencies

Unmanned Aerial Systems

Mapping Woody Debris in the Great Brook

Sources of Passive Panchromatic and Multispectral Imagery. High- and Very-High Spatial Resolution

Moderate- and Low-Spatial-Resolution Panchromatic and Multispectral Imagery

USGS EROS

ArcGIS Online

ESA

Thermal Imagery — All Spatial Resolutions

Hyperspectral Imagery — All Spatial Resolutions

Sources for Imagery Collected from Active Sensors. Lidar

Radar

Summary — Practical Considerations

Chapter 5. Working with Imagery. Introduction

Image Scale

Image Storage and Formats

Pixels

Tiling Pixels

Pixel and Band Ordering

Image Properties

Georeferencing

Image Statistics

Raster Products

Compression

NoData

Pyramids

Image Display for Continuous Raster Data

Histograms

Image Stretch

Gamma

Image Enhancement and Filtering for Continuous Raster Data

How Image Filters Work

Smoothing Filters (Low-Pass Filters)

Edge Filters (High-Pass Filters)

Image Mosaics and the Mosaic Dataset. Overview of Image Mosaics

Mosaic Datasets — an Introduction

Components of a Mosaic Dataset

Dynamic Mosaicking and Mosaic Methods

Mosaic Operators for Mosaic Datasets

Mosaic Dataset Raster Functions

Accessing Imagery as Web Services. Introduction

Types of Web Services for Raster Data

Dynamic Image Services

Tile Cache Services

Geoprocessing Services

Examples of Publicly Available Web Services for Raster Data

Using Image Services in ArcGIS Desktop

Exporting and Downloading Imagery from Dynamic Image Services

Using Web Services in ArcGIS Web Maps

Using Raster Web Services in Story Maps

Using Raster Web Services in Apps

Summary — Practical Considerations

Chapter 6. Imagery Processing: Controlling Unwanted Variation in the Imagery

Review of Electromagnetic Energy

Interactions

Reflectance versus Radiance

Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function

Radiometric Correction

Sensor Correction

Sun Angle and Topographic Correction

Atmospheric Correction

Clouds and Cloud Shadows

Geometric Correction

Coordinate Systems and Map Projections

Image Registration

Resampling

Georeferencing

2D Transforms

Orthorectification

Mosaicking

Summary — Practical Considerations

Chapter 7. Understanding Variation on the Ground — the Importance of the Classification Scheme. Introduction

Definition and Why Classification Schemes Are Important

Constrained by Minimum Mapping Units

Defined by Labels and Rules

Figure 7.1. A very simple hierarchy of map labels demonstrating the need for rules to define the map classes

Figure 7.2. The map labels of figure 7.1 turned into a classification scheme with the addition of map label rules and minimum mapping units (MMUs)

Totally Exhaustive

Mutually Exclusive

Hierarchical

Figure 7.3. A typical hierarchical organization of map labels

Figure 7.4. An example of a hierarchical classification scheme for forest classification in Sonoma County, California. Source: Sonoma County Agriculture Preservation and Open Space District. Which Classification Scheme to Use

Existing Classification Schemes

Table 7.1. Commonly used classification schemes

Building New Classification Schemes

Figure 7.5. National vegetation classification (NVC) hierarchy

Figure 7.6. Relationship between the map classes of interest in the classification scheme and the ability of the remotely sensed imagery to distinguish these classes. Case Study—Sonoma County, California, Vegetation Map Classification Key. A good example of a robust map classification scheme is the one created for Sonoma County, California, by the California Department of Fish and Wildlife in 2015. The NVC provides the hierarchy for the scheme, and the scheme is expressed as a classification key. To create the key, more than 1,400 detailed vegetation samples were collected throughout the county. Next, personnel with the California Department of Fish and Wildlife used ordination analysis to classify the samples into NVC vegetation macrogroups, groups, and alliances. They then created a key to distinguish the vegetation alliances from one another. Finally, the vegetation alliance key was transformed into a land-use land-cover mapping key by including life-form rules and combining some alliances into groups or macrogroups. The following are important elements of the mapping key:

The field key follows, at the end of the chapter. Summary—Practical Considerations

Hierarchical Field Key to the Vegetation Alliances of Sonoma County. This key is for the vegetation types found in Sonoma County, based on the classification developed by analyzing survey data collected for this and other relevant projects. It is intended as a guide to field-based and image interpretation-based identification of vegetation. This key is not dichotomous; instead it follows the hierarchy of the United States National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) as of the publication of the Manual of California Vegetation (Sawyer et al., 2009). The USNVC hierarchy is promoted by the Survey of California Vegetation (SCV), Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) and the Ecological Society of America’s Vegetation Panel (FGDC 2008, Faber-Langendoen et al. 2014) This key lists vegetation types starting at the USNVC macrogroup level and proceeding down to the association level. The complete hierarchy for this classification is listed in Table 1, Final Vegetation Classification for Sonoma County, California. Due to the high diversity of the vegetation types in the area, this is a complex key. Follow the instructions in a section carefully and sequentially to arrive at the correct vegetation type. You will need to collect or refer to plant composition data that includes not only those species that are dominant but also those “indicator” or characteristic/diagnostic species, whose presence may cause a stand to key to a particular vegetation type. If it seems that a stand of vegetation could key to more than one type, review the descriptions (e.g., stand tables, environmental information) for each type to determine which one fits best. Note that this vegetation key may include types that are not accurately detectable in remotely-sensed imagery. Terms and Concepts Used throughout the Key. Stand: The basic physical unit of plant communities in a landscape. It has no set size. Some vegetation stands are very small, such as certain wetland types, and some may be several square kilometers in size, such as certain forest types. A stand is defined by two main unifying characteristics: 1. It has compositional integrity. Throughout the stand, the combination of species is similar. The stand is differentiated from adjacent stands by a discernible boundary that may be abrupt or occur indistinctly along an ecological gradient. 2. It has structural integrity. It has a similar history or environmental setting that affords relatively similar horizontal and vertical spacing of plant species. For example, a hillside forest originally dominated by the same species that burned on the upper part of the slopes but not the lower would be divided into two stands. Likewise, a sparse woodland occupying a slope with very shallow rocky soils would be considered a different stand from an adjacent slope with deeper, moister soil and a denser woodland or forest of the same species. The compositional and structural features of a stand are often combined into a term called homogeneity. For an area to meet the definition of a stand, it must be homogeneous at the scale being considered. United States National Vegetation Classification (USNVC): A central organizing framework for how all vegetation in the United States is inventoried and studied, from broad scale formations (biomes) to fine-scale plant communities. The purpose of the NVC is to produce uniform statistics about vegetation resources across the nation, based on vegetation data gathered at local, regional, or national levels. The latest classification standard was published in by the FGDC (2008) The hierarchy units in the USNVC from highest to lowest (i.e., broadest to finest) are: 1. Formation Class. 2. Formation Subclass. 3. Formation. 4. Division. 5. Macrogroup. 6. Group. 7. Alliance. 8. Association. Alliance: Plant communities based on dominant/diagnostic species of the uppermost or dominant stratum. Accepted alliances are part of the USNVC hierarchy. For the Sonoma County Vegetation Map (SVM), map classes are typically at the alliance level of the USNVC hierarchy. Association: The most botanically detailed or finest-scale plant community designation based on dominant species and multiple co-dominant or subdominant indicator species from any stratum. Associations are also part of the USNVC hierarchy. The SVM map classes are not typically defined to the association level. Plant community nomenclature: Species separated by “–” are within the same stratum; species separated by “/” are in different strata. Cover: The primary metric used to quantify the importance/abundance of a particular species or a particular vegetation layer within a stand. It is measured by estimating the aerial extent of the living plants, or the bird’s-eye view looking from above, for each category. Cover in this mapping project uses the concept of “porosity” or foliar cover rather than “opacity” or crown cover. Thus, field crews are trained to estimate the amount of light versus shade produced by the canopy of a plant or a stratum by taking into account the amount of shade it casts excluding the openings it may have in the interstitial spaces (e.g., between leaves or branches). This is assumed to provide a more realistic estimate of the actual amount of shade cast by the individual or stratum which, in turn, relates to the actual amount of light available to individual species or strata beneath it. However, as a result, cover estimates can vary substantially between leaf-on versus leaf-off conditions. Stands dominated by deciduous species (e.g., Aesculus californica, Toxicodendron diversilobum) should be sampled during leaf-on since they will have substantially less cover when leaves are absent and may key to another type. Absolute cover: The actual percentage of the surface area of the survey that is covered by a species or physiognomic group (trees, shrubs, herbaceous), as in “tan oak covers 10% of the area being surveyed.” Absolute cover of all species or physiognomic groups, when added together, may total greater than 100%, because this is not a proportional number and plants can overlap with each other. For example, a stand could have 25% tree cover in the upper layer, 40% shrub cover in the middle layer, and 50% herbaceous cover when surveyed on the ground. However, when aerial interpretation is being used, the maximum absolute value is 100%, since lower levels of vegetation cannot be seen through the overstory on aerial photographs. Relative cover: The percentage of surface area within a survey area that is covered either by one species relative to other species within the same physiognomic stratum (tree, shrub, herbaceous) or one stratum relative to the total vegetation cover in a polygon. Thus, 50% relative cover of Quercus douglasii in the tree layer means that Q. douglasii composes half the cover of all tree species within a stand, while 50% relative shrub cover means that shrubs make up half the cover of all vegetation within a stand. Relative cover values are proportional numbers that, when added together, total 100% for each species within a stratum or each stratum within a stand of vegetation. Dominance: Dominance refers to the preponderance of vegetation cover in a stand of uniform composition and site history. It may refer to cover of an individual species as in “dominated by tan oak,” or it may refer to dominance by a physiognomic group, as in “dominated by shrubs.” When we use the term in the key, a species is dominant if it is in relatively high cover in each stand. See “dominance by layer,” below, for further explanation. Strongly dominant: A species in the dominant life-form stratum has 60% or greater relative cover. Co-dominant: Codominance refers to two or more species in a stand with similar cover. Specifically, each species has between 30% and 60% relative cover. For example in a coastal scrub stand with 5% Baccharis pilularis, 4% Frangula californica, and 3% Rubus ursinus (total 13% shrub cover), technically only the Baccharis (5/13 = 39% relative cover) and the Frangula (4/13 = 31% relative cover) would be co-dominant because Rubus would only have 23% relative cover (3/13 = 23%) Characteristic/Diagnostic species: Should be present in at least 80% of the stands of the type, with no restriction on cover. Relatively even spacing throughout the stand is important, particularly in vegetation with low total cover, since an even distribution of the diagnostic species is a much better indicator than overall cover. Characteristic species that are evenly distributed are better indicators of a type than species with higher cover and patchy distribution. Dominance by layer/stratum: Tree, shrub, and herbaceous layers are considered physiognomically distinct. Alliances are usually named by the dominant and/or characteristic species of the tallest characteristic layer (see tree-characterized, shrub-characterized, and herb-characterized vegetation definitions below). Average covers within the dominant layer reflect the “modal” concept of the health/age/environment of a particular vegetation type. For example, a higher average cover of woody plants within a stand not recently affected by disturbance reflects a mode of general availability of water, nutrition, and equitable climate, while lower average cover under similar conditions would reflect lower availability of these things. Woody plant: A vascular plant species that has a noticeably woody stem (e.g., shrubs and trees). It does not include herbaceous species with woody underground portions such as tubers, roots, or rhizomes. Tree: A one-stemmed woody plant that normally grows to be greater than 5 meters tall. In some cases, trees may be multistemmed (ramified due to fire or other disturbance) but the height of mature plants typically exceeds 5 meters. If less than 5 meters tall, undisturbed individuals of these species are usually single-stemmed. Certain species that sometimes resemble shrubs but may be trees in other areas (e.g., Aesculus californica) are, out of statewide tradition or by the USNVC, called trees. It behooves one to memorize which species are “traditionally” placed in one life-form or another. We use the accepted life-forms in the USNVC or the PLANTS Database (USDA NRCS 2015) to do this. Tree-characterized vegetation: Trees are evenly distributed throughout the stand. In the Mediterranean climate of the North Coast, tree-dominated alliances typically have >10% absolute tree cover, providing a consistent structural component. Forest: In the USNVC, a forest is defined as a tree-dominated stand of vegetation with 60% or greater absolute cover of trees. Most forest alliances tend to have an average cover of trees <60%, but individual stands under certain conditions may drop lower than 60% Woodland: In the USNVC, a woodland is defined as a tree-dominated stand of vegetation with between 25% and 60% absolute cover of trees. Most woodland alliances tend to have an average cover of trees with 25-60%, but individual stands under certain conditions may drop higher or lower than this range. Emergent: A plant (or vegetation layer) is considered emergent if it has low cover and rises above a layer with more cover in the stand. For example, individual Pseudotsuga menziesii trees may compose an emergent tree layer of 2% cover over dense Gaultheria shallon and Rubus parviflorus in the shrub understory; the stand would be considered within the Gaultheria shallon – Rubus (ursinus) Shrubland Alliance because the total tree cover is <10% and the shrub cover is >10%. Medium to tall shrubs are not considered emergent over shorter shrubs, but short trees are considered emergent over tall shrubs. Shrub: A multistemmed woody plant that is usually 0.2-5 meters tall. Definitions are blurred at the low and high ends of the height scales. At the tall end, shrubs may approach tree size based on disturbance frequencies (e.g., old-growth resprouting chaparral species such as Cercocarpus montanus, Fremontodendron californicum, Prunus ilicifolia, and so on, may frequently attain “tree size,” but are still typically multistemmed and are considered shrubs in this key). At the short end, woody perennial herbs or subshrubs of various species are often difficult to categorize into a consistent life-form (e.g., Eriogonum latifolium, Lupinus chamissonis); in such instances, we refer to the PLANTS Database or “pick a lane” based on best available definitions. Subshrub: A multistemmed plant with noticeably woody stems less than 0.5 meter tall. May be easily confused with a perennial herb or small shrub. We lump them into the “shrub” category in stand tables and descriptions of vegetation types. Shrub-characterized vegetation: Shrubs, including subshrubs, are evenly distributed throughout the stand, providing a consistent (even if sparse) structural component; the stand cannot be characterized as a tree stand; and one or both of the following criteria are met: 1) shrubs influence the distribution or population dynamics of other plant species; 2) shrubs play an important role in ecological processes within the stand. Shrub alliances typically have at least 10% absolute shrub cover. Herbaceous plant: Any species of plant that has no main woody stem development; includes grasses, forbs, and perennial species that die back each year. Herb-characterized vegetation: Herbs are evenly distributed throughout the stand, providing a consistent (even if sparse) structural component and playing an important role in ecological processes within the stand. The stand cannot be characterized as a tree or shrub stand. Nonvascular vegetation: Nonvascular organisms characterize a stand, providing a consistent (even if sparse) structural component and playing an important role in ecological processes within the stand. Botanical nomenclature: We use the PLANTS Database (USDA NRCS 2015) as our standard for botanical names, except in two cases. When a more current name has been assigned in The Jepson Manual, second edition (Baldwin et al. 2012), that name is frequently used and a code beginning with “2JM” is assigned. General vegetation types, such as moss and lichen, have codes beginning with the number 2 (e.g., 2MOSS) KEY TO NATURAL AND SEMINATURAL VEGETATION OF SONOMA COUNTY. Class A. Vegetation dominated, co-dominated, or characterized by an even distribution of overstory trees. The tree canopy is generally greater than 10%, but may occasionally be less than 10% over a denser understory of shrubs and/or herbs = Tree-Overstory (Woodland / Forest) Vegetation. Class B. Vegetation dominated, co-dominated, or characterized by woody shrubs in the canopy. Shrubs usually have at least 5% cover. Tree species, if present, generally total less than 10% absolute cover. Herbaceous species may have higher cover than shrubs = Shrubland Vegetation. Class C. Vegetation dominated, co-dominated, or characterized by nonwoody, herbaceous species in the canopy, including grasses, graminoids, and broad-leaved herbaceous species. Shrubs, if present, usually compose less than 5% of the vegetation cover. Trees, if present, generally compose less than 5% cover = Herbaceous Vegetation. Class A. Tree-Overstory (Woodland / Forest) Vegetation. Section I: Woodlands and forests dominated or characterized by needle or scale-leaved conifer trees. Includes Abies, Hesperocyparis, Pinus, Pseudotsuga, and Sequoia. 1. Temperate rainforest dominated or co-dominated by Sequoia sempervirens or Abies grandis. Found in maritime climates with summertime fog. Vancouverian Rainforest Macrogroup. Vancouverian Hypermaritime Lowland Rainforest Group. 1a.Sequoia sempervirens dominates, co-dominates, or characterizes (rarely with as little as 5% cover) stands near streams, along all slopes and aspects, or on ridges. Associated trees include Acer macrophyllum, Notholithocarpus densiflorus, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Torreya californica, and Umbellularia californica, which are typically sub- to co-dominant but may occasionally exceed Sequoia in cover. Vaccinium ovatum, Oxalis oregana, and Woodwardia fimbriata may intermix in the understory. Sequoia sempervirens AllianceSequoia sempervirens – Acer macrophyllum – Umbellularia californica Association Sequoia sempervirens – Notholithocarpus densiflorus / Vaccinium ovatum Association Sequoia sempervirens – Pseudotsuga menziesii – Notholithocarpus densiflorus Provisional Association Sequoia sempervirens — Pseudotsuga menziesii – Umbellularia californica Association Sequoia sempervirens — Umbellularia californica Association Sequoia sempervirens / Oxalis oregana Association Sequoia sempervirens / Woodwardia fimbriata Riparian Provisional Association. 1b.Abies grandis has strong dominance in the tree overstory, with Pinus muricata and Sequoia sempervirens intermixing locally as subdominants. Stands are rare in the county. One stand, found on a convexity running along a middle slope up to the ridgetop, was sampled for this project. Abies grandis Alliance. 2. Cool-temperate coniferous forests and woodlands influenced by warm, relatively dry summers and cool rainy winters. Stands are dominated or co-dominated by Pinus ponderosa, Pseudotsuga menziesii, or P. menziesii in combination with Notholithocarpus densiflorus in the tree overstory. Californian–Vancouverian Montane and Foothill Forest Macrogroup. 2a. Vegetation characterized by a mixture of Pseudotsuga menziesii and Notholithocarpus densiflorus in the canopy. Pseudotsuga is typically dominant to co-dominant with Notholithocarpus, but may occasionally be slightly subdominant. Vancouverian Evergreen Broadleaf and Mixed Forest Group. Pseudotsuga menziesii – Notholithocarpus densiflorus AlliancePseudotsuga menziesii – Notholithocarpus densiflorus Association. 2b. Vegetation characterized by Pinus ponderosa and/or Pseudotsuga menziesii. If Notholithocarpus densiflorus is present, it is subdominant with relatively low cover. Upland Vancouverian Mixed Woodland and Forest Group. 2b1.Pinus ponderosa is dominant to co-dominant with Pseudotsuga menziesii. Stands with significant Pinus ponderosa were only encountered twice for this project – in the higher elevation, eastern portion of the county in The Geysers. In both instances, Arbutus menziesii, Arctostaphylos manzanita, and Quercus chrysolepis were present. Pinus ponderosa – Pseudotsuga menziesii AlliancePinus ponderosa – Pseudotsuga menziesii Association. 2b2.Pseudotsuga menziesii not as above, but instead dominant or co-dominant with Arbutus menziesii, Quercus agrifolia, Q. chrysolepis, or Umbellularia californica. When P. menziesii co-dominates with hardwoods, key to P. menziesii, except when with Quercus garryana, Q. kelloggii, or Notholithocarpus densiflorus (see Q. garryana (step 4a3) or Q. kelloggii Alliance (step 5c4) below, or P. menziesii – N. densiflorus Alliance above, step 2a) Pseudotsuga menziesii AlliancePseudotsuga menziesii – Arbutus menziesii Association Pseudotsuga menziesii – Quercus agrifolia Association Pseudotsuga menziesii – Quercus chrysolepis Association Pseudotsuga menziesii – Umbellularia californica Association Pseudotsuga menziesii – Umbellularia californica / Polystichum munitum Association. 3. Closed-cone or xerophyllic conifers, including Hesperocyparis spp., Pinus attenuata, Pinus muricata, Pinus radiata, or Pinus sabiniana is dominant, co-dominant, or characteristic in the overstory. California Forest and Woodland Macrogroup. Californian Evergreen Coniferous Forest and Woodland Group. 3a. Stands dominated by a native or planted species of Hesperocyparis. 3a1. Planted Hesperocyparis macrocarpa dominates in patches or along roads. In this region of California, stands are considered seminatural since they are not naturally occurring. Hesperocyparis macrocarpa Special Stands and Seminatural AllianceHesperocyparis macrocarpa Provisional Seminatural Association. 3a2. A native cypress species, Hesperocyparis macnabiana or H. sargentii, dominates or characterizes stands on serpentine, volcanic, or other ultramafic substrates. Adenostoma fasciculatum, Arctostaphylos spp., Ceanothus jepsonii, and Quercus durata are commonly found in stands. 3a2a.Hesperocyparis macnabiana characterizes the tree canopy (sometimes with <10% cover) and may be similar in height to surrounding shrubs. Found on open slopes and ridges and only known locally in the eastern part of the county. Hesperocyparis macnabiana AllianceHesperocyparis macnabiana / Arctostaphylos viscida Association. 3a2b.Hesperocyparis sargentii dominates on slopes, ridges, or along stream benches and terraces. Sites are known near Harrison Grade or The Cedars. Hesperocyparis sargentii AllianceHesperocyparis sargentii / Ceanothus jepsonii – Arctostaphylos spp. Provisional Association Hesperocyparis sargentii / Quercus durata (mesic) Provisional Association Hesperocyparis sargentii Riparian Association. 3b. Stands dominated by Pinus attenuata, P. muricata, P. radiata, or P. sabiniana. 3b1.Pinus attenuata dominates in the tree overstory, sometimes with a moderately dense cover of shrubs such as Adenostoma fasciculatum, Arctostaphylos spp., and Ceanothus cuneatus in the understory. Pinus attenuata AlliancePinus attenuata / Arctostaphylos (manzanita, canescens) Provisional Association Pinus attenuata / Arctostaphylos viscida Association. 3b2.Pinus muricata is the sole dominant or may co-dominate with Hesperocyparis pigmaea in the tree overstory. The understory may include moderate to dense cover of shrubs such as Arctostaphylos nummularia, Gaultheria shallon, and Vaccinium ovatum. Pinus muricata AlliancePinus muricata Provisional Association Pinus muricata – Hesperocyparis pigmaea Provisional Provisional Association Pinus muricata / Vaccinium ovatum Provisional Association. 3b3.Pinus sabiniana dominates or co-dominates with Umbellularia californica in the tree overstory. Adenostoma fasciculatum, Arctostaphylos viscida, Quercus durata, and other shrubs may exceed P. sabiniana in cover. Pinus sabiniana AlliancePinus sabiniana / Quercus durata Provisional Association Pinus sabiniana / Arctostaphylos viscida Association. 3b4. Planted stands of Pinus radiata are found along roadsides or on slopes where they were introduced after fires in the 1960’s. Pinus radiata AlliancePinus radiata Provisional Seminatural Association. Section II. Woodlands, forests, and riparian vegetation characterized and/or dominated mainly by native and nonnative broad-leaved evergreen and deciduous trees. Includes species of Aesculus, Acer, Alnus, Arbutus, Fraxinus, Juglans, Notholithocarpus, Populus, Quercus, Salix, and Umbellularia. 4. Vegetation dominated, co-dominated, or characterized by one or more of the following broadleaf trees: Acer macrophyllum, Arbutus menziesii, Notholithocarpus densiflorus, or Quercus garryana. Californian–Vancouverian Montane and Foothill Forest Macrogroup. 4a. Broadleaf trees such as Arbutus menziesii, Notholithocarpus densiflorus, or Quercus garryana dominate, co-dominate, or characterize moist, coastal, mixed evergreen forests and woodlands. Stands of Quercus garryana may also occur in more interior settings, where the winters are cooler and the summers are warmer. Vancouverian Evergreen Broadleaf and Mixed Forest Group. 4a1.Arbutus menziesii is either dominant with subdominant Quercus agrifolia or is dominant to co-dominant with Quercus kelloggii and/or Umbellularia californica. Pseudotsuga menziesii, Heteromeles arbutifolia, and Toxicodendron diversilobum are often present. If Arbutus is sub- to co-dominant with Quercus agrifolia, Q. chrysolepis, or Notholithocarpus densiflorus, key to one of these alliances instead of A. menziesii. Arbutus menziesii AllianceArbutus menziesii – Quercus agrifolia Association Arbutus menziesii – Umbellularia californica Provisional Association Arbutus menziesii – Umbellularia californica – Quercus kelloggii Association. 4a2.Notholithocarpus densiflorus is strongly dominant in the tree canopy or co-occurs with sub-dominant to co-dominant Arbutus menziesii. Notholithocarpus densiflorus AllianceNotholithocarpus densiflorus Provisional Association Notholithocarpus densiflorus – Arbutus menziesii Association. 4a3.Quercus garryana dominates or co-dominates with other broadleaf trees or Pseudotsuga menziesii. Stands are of two types: 1) relatively dense woodlands without a significant understory herb component or 2) open woodlands over moderate to dense native and nonnative herbs (e.g., Cynosurus echinatus and Festuca californica). Pseudotsuga menziesii, Umbellularia californica, Quercus agrifolia, and/or Q. kelloggii commonly intermix, typically as subdominants. If two or more species of Quercus are present and, collectively, they are dominant or co-dominant with Q. garryana, key to the Quercus (agrifolia, douglasii, garryana, kelloggii, lobata, wislizeni) Alliance (step 5c1) Quercus garryana (tree) AllianceQuercus garryana – Umbellularia californica – Quercus (agrifolia, kelloggii) Provisional Association Quercus garryana / (Cynosurus echinatus – Festuca californica) Provisional Association. 4b.Acer macrophyllum dominates or co-dominates with Umbellularia californica or, occasionally, Fraxinus latifolia in riparian or, occasionally, upland stands. Pseudotsuga menziesii, Quercus agrifolia, and Q. chrysolepis may intermix. Acer stands were found farther than 15 miles from the coast or closer to the eastern boundary of the county, usually in low-lying, rocky, steep canyons. Upland Vancouverian Mixed Woodland and Forest Group. Acer macrophyllum AllianceAcer macrophyllum Association. 5. Vegetation dominated or co-dominated by the following broadleaf, primarily upland tree species: Aesculus californica, Quercus agrifolia, Q. chrysolepis, Q. douglasii, Q. kelloggii, Q. lobata, Q. parvula var. shrevei, Q. wislizeni, and/or Umbellularia californica. California Forest and Woodland Macrogroup. Californian Broadleaf Forest and Woodland Group. 5a.Aesculus californica dominates in open to moderately dense woodlands. If Umbellularia californica is present, it is subdominant. A variety of herbs may be found in the understory. Aesculus californica AllianceAesculus californica / Toxicodendron diversilobum / Moss Association. 5b.Umbellularia californica is either dominant or co-dominant with Quercus agrifolia in open to dense woodlands. Found in a variety of settings, such as streamsides, valley bottoms, coastal bluffs, inland ridges, steep north-facing slopes, rocky outcrops, and postfire landscapes. If U. californica is co-dominant with Arbutus, Acer, or Pinus sabiniana on serpentine, or Pseudotsuga menziesii, Quercus garryana, Q. kelloggii, or Sequoia, key to one of these other hardwood or conifer alliances instead. Umbellularia californica AllianceUmbellularia californica – Acer macrophyllum Association Umbellularia californica – Notholithocarpus densiflorus Association Umbellularia californica – Pseudotsuga menziesii / Rhododendron occidentale Association Umbellularia californica – Quercus agrifolia Provisional Association Umbellularia californica (Pure – Coastal) Provisional Association Umbellularia californica / Polystichum munitum Association. 5c. One or more species of Quercus listed above (step 5), other than Quercus garryana (step 4a3), dominates or co-dominates in the tree overstory or Quercus garryana co-dominates with two other oak species. 5c1.Quercus agrifolia, Quercus garryana, and/or Quercus kelloggii are present and at least two of the oak species co-dominate. Other oaks such as Q. chrysolepis, Q. douglasii, and Q. lobata may also be present. This mixed type is for stands where multiple Quercus tree species intermix and it is difficult to assign to an alliance defined by one oak species – read steps to key to individual oak alliances below. Quercus (agrifolia, douglasii, garryana, kelloggii, lobata, wislizeni) AllianceQuercus agrifolia – Quercus garryana – Quercus kelloggii Provisional Association. 5c2.Quercus chrysolepis is dominant or co-dominant with Arbutus menziesii in the tree overstory. Quercus wislizeni is occasionally found as a subdominant tree. Quercus chrysolepis (tree) AllianceQuercus chrysolepis – Arbutus menziesii Provisional Association Quercus chrysolepis – Quercus wislizeni Association. 5c3.Quercus douglasii or Quercus ×eplingii (the hybrid between Q. douglasii and Q. garryana) dominates or co-dominates with Quercus agrifolia or Arbutus menziesii in the tree overstory. The understory herbaceous layer is often moderately dense to dense, with a mixture of native and nonnative forbs and grasses. Quercus douglasii AllianceQuercus × eplingii / Grass Provisional Association Quercus douglasii – Quercus agrifolia Association Quercus douglasii / Arctostaphylos manzanita / Herbaceous Association Quercus douglasii / Grass Association. 5c4.Quercus kelloggii dominates or co-dominates with Pseudotsuga menziesii, Q. agrifolia, and/or Umbellularia californica in the tree overstory. Arbutus menziesii is often present as a sub-dominant species. Stands in Sonoma County are found inland, above maritime influence, on northern exposures. Quercus kelloggii AllianceQuercus kelloggii – Arbutus menziesii – Quercus agrifolia Association Quercus kelloggii – Pseudotsuga menziesii – Umbellularia californica Association. 5c5.Quercus lobata dominates or co-dominates with Fraxinus latifolia and/or Quercus agrifolia in the tree overstory. Stands are typically found along valley bottoms, lower slopes, and summit valleys on seasonally saturated soils that may flood intermittently. Common understory shrubs include Rosa californica, Rubus spp., and Toxicodendron diversilobum. Quercus lobata AllianceQuercus lobata – Fraxinus latifolia / (Vitis californica) Association Quercus lobata – Quercus agrifolia / Grass Association Quercus lobata / Grass Association Quercus lobata / Rubus ursinus – Rosa californica Provisional Association. 5c6.Quercus parvula var. shrevei dominates as a tree or shrubby regenerating tree, co-occurring with Umbellularia, Adenostoma, and a variety of other shrubs that prefer more mesic, northerly exposures. One stand was sampled and classified in Sonoma County, and likely further variation will be seen. Quercus parvula var. shrevei Provisional Alliance. 5c7. The tree form of Quercus wislizeni dominates or co-dominates in the tree canopy, often with Arbutus menziesii, Pseudotsuga menziesii, and/or Umbellularia californica. If Q. wislizeni has a shrubby habit or is a regenerating tree intermixing with a variety of other shrub species, key to the Quercus wislizeni (shrub) Alliance, step 9b. Quercus wislizeni (tree) AllianceQuercus wislizeni – Arbutus menziesii / Toxicodendron diversilobum Association. 5c8.Quercus agrifolia dominates or co-dominates with Arbutus menziesii in the canopy. If Q. douglasii (or hybrid Q. ×eplingii), Q. lobata, or Umbellularia californica is co-dominant, key to one of these other alliances instead of Q. agrifolia. The understory herbaceous layer often contains a mixture of native and nonnative herbs and/or shrubs. Quercus agrifolia AllianceQuercus agrifolia – Arbutus menziesii – Umbellularia californica Association Quercus agrifolia / Grass Association Quercus agrifolia / Toxicodendron diversilobum Association. 6.Acer negundo, Juglans hindsii, Populus fremontii, or Salix laevigata is dominant, co-dominant or characteristic in permanently moist or riparian settings, where subsurface water is available all year. Nearby upland vegetation is often dominated by broadleaf evergreen or deciduous trees, as opposed to conifers. Southwestern North American Riparian, Flooded, and Swamp Forest Macrogroup. Southwestern North American Riparian Evergreen and Deciduous Woodland Group. 6a.Acer negundo dominates in the tree overstory, often along major streams and rivers, with other riparian plants such as Fraxinus, Populus, Rubus, and Salix. Stands are considered rare in the state and may be small and monospecific. Acer negundo Alliance. 6b.Juglans hindsii or hybrids dominate in naturalized stands along riparian corridors, floodplains, stream banks, and terraces. Other riparian species may be present, including Acer, Fraxinus, and Rubus. Juglans hindsii and Hybrids Special Stands and Seminatural Alliance. 6c.Populus fremontii dominates or co-dominates with Acer negundo, Juglans, and/or Salix, sometimes with Populus having as little as 5% absolute cover. If Juglans hindsii is dominant, but Populus has at least 20% relative cover in the tree layer, key to this alliance. Populus fremontii AlliancePopulus fremontii – Acer negundo Association Populus fremontii / Salix exigua Association. 6d.Salix laevigata dominates along streams, rivers, ditches, floodplains, and lake edges. Associated trees and shrubs include Alnus rhombifolia, Populus fremontii, Quercus agrifolia, Rubus, Salix, and others. Salix laevigata AllianceSalix laevigata / Salix lasiolepis Association. 7.Alnus rhombifolia, Fraxinus latifolia, and/or Salix lucida are dominant, co-dominant, or characteristic of broadleaf riparian tree vegetation. Stands are more likely to occur near cool-temperate coniferous forests, unlike vegetation of the Southwestern North American Riparian, Flooded, and Swamp Forest Macrogroup described above. Found along riparian corridors, incised canyons, seeps, stream banks, midchannel bars, floodplains, and terraces. Western Cordilleran Montane–Boreal Riparian Scrub Macrogroup. Vancouverian Riparian Deciduous Forest Group. 7a.Alnus rhombifolia dominates or co-dominates with Acer macrophyllum or Umbellularia californica in the tree overstory. If Fraxinus latifolia is co-dominant, key to the Fraxinus latifolia Alliance below. A variety of shrubs and herbs may be found in the understory, including Carex, Rubus, Toxicodendron, Xerophyllum, and Woodwardia. Careful identification of alder stands closer to the coast is necessary to differentiate from A. rubra stands. Alnus rhombifolia AllianceAlnus rhombifolia Association Alnus rhombifolia – Acer macrophyllum Association Alnus rhombifolia / Carex (nudata) Association. 7b.Alnus rubra dominates in the tree canopy in riparian settings, typically within a few miles of the coast. The understory often comprises one to many species of Rubus, which may exceed Alnus in cover. Alnus rubra stands were encountered usually less than 10 miles from the coast in riparian or swampy bottomlands, but can occur along rocky streambeds in similar settings to A. rhombifolia stands. Careful identification of the species of Alnus is important closer to the coast. Alnus rubra Alliance1Alnus rubra / Rubus spp. Provisional Association. 7c.Fraxinus latifolia dominates or co-dominates with Alnus rhombifolia or Umbellularia californica in the tree overstory. Stands for this project were encountered and surveyed in the southern half of Sonoma County. Fraxinus latifolia AllianceFraxinus latifolia Association Fraxinus latifolia – Alnus rhombifolia Association. 7d.Salix lucida ssp. lasiandra dominates in the overstory, sometimes with higher or similar cover by shrubs in the understory, such as Rubus spp. and Salix lasiolepis. Adjacent stands may be dominated by Alnus spp., Quercus agrifolia or conifers. Salix lucida AllianceSalix lucida ssp. lasiandra Association. 8. A tree species of Eucalyptus dominates in planted or naturalized stands. Often found in groves, windbreaks, uplands, and along stream courses. Stands were observed, but not sampled for this project. Introduced North American Mediterranean Woodland and Forest Macrogroup and Group. Eucalyptus (globulus, camaldulensis) Seminatural Alliance. Class B. Shrubland Vegetation. Section I. Riparian or moist hillside settings with vegetation dominated or co-dominated by the following shrubs: Frangula californica (including all subspecies), Morella californica, Rhododendron occidentale, Rubus armeniacus, R. spectabilis, Salix breweri, S. exigua, S. lasiolepis, S. melanopsis, S. sitchensis, and/or Sambucus nigra *Note: if Rubus ursinus dominates, key to the Gaultheria shallon – Rubus (ursinus) Alliance in Section II below (step 5b3) 1.Rubus armeniacus, a nonnative from Europe, is strongly dominant in riparian sites, mesic clearings, disturbed areas, and stock ponds. Vancouverian Lowland Grassland and Shrubland Macrogroup. Naturalized Nonnative Deciduous Scrub Group. Rubus armeniacus Seminatural AllianceRubus armeniacus Seminatural Association. 2.Morella californica, Rubus parviflorus, R. spectabilis and/or Salix sitchensis dominate or co-dominate with Rubus spp. Western Cordilleran Montane–Boreal Riparian Scrub Macrogroup. Vancouverian Coastal Riparian Scrub Group. 2a. Vegetation dominated or characterized by Morella californica, Rubus parviflorus, and/or Rubus spectabilis. Stands may be small and are generally found close to the coast on moist or wet soils. Morella californica – Rubus spectabilis Provisional AllianceMorella californica – Rubus spp. Provisional Association Rubus parviflorus Association Rubus spectabilis Association. 2b.Salix sitchensis dominates or co-dominates with S. lasiolepis along coastal or low-elevation streams, lagoons. A variety of subdominant trees and shrubs may be present, including Acer, Alnus, Fraxinus, Salix, and Rubus. Salix sitchensis Provisional AllianceSalix sitchensis Provisional Association. 3.Frangula californica, Rhododendron occidentale, Salix breweri, S. exigua, S. lasiolepis, S. melanopsis, and/or Sambucus nigra dominant or co-dominant with Baccharis pilularis or Rubus spp. Southwestern North American Riparian, Flooded and Swamp Forest Macrogroup. Southwestern North American Riparian/Wash Scrub Group. 3a.Frangula californica and/or Rhododendron occidentale dominate or co-dominate with Baccharis pilularis or Rubus. Stands are found along springs, seeps, ravines, and hillslopes, often on sedimentary and serpentine substrates that retain water much of the year. Frangula californica – Rhododendron occidentale Provisional AllianceFrangula californica ssp. californica Provisional Association Rhododendron occidentale – Frangula californica ssp. tomentella Provisional Association. 3b.Salix breweri dominates along creeks and stream terraces, on serpentine-derived alluvium. Locally present along streams on serpentine in The Cedars area. Commonly found with other moisture loving plants, such as Alnus rhombifolia, Baccharis salicifolia, Rubus, and Stachys albens. Salix breweri AllianceSalix breweri Provisional Association. 3c.Salix exigua or Salix melanopsis dominates along rivers and streams, or close to springs. They are often the first plants to colonize bars and cut banks, followed later by trees such as Populus and Salix spp. Salix exigua AllianceSalix exigua Association Salix exigua – Salix melanopsis Association. 3d.Sambucus nigra dominates in the shrub overstory, often preferring stream terraces, bottomlands, and localized areas in uplands, where there was past disturbance. One stand was encountered for this project, along a draw that was burned. Sambucus nigra AllianceSambucus nigra Association. 3e.Salix lasiolepis dominates or co-dominates with Rubus along stream banks and benches, slope seeps, and drainage stringers. If S. sitchensis is co-dominant, key to the S. sitchensis Alliance instead (step 2b). Emergent riparian trees are often present, such as Acer, Alnus, Fraxinus, Salix, and others. Salix lasiolepis AllianceSalix lasiolepis / Rubus spp. Association. Section II. Coastal scrub, dune/bluff, and disturbance-following vegetation dominated or co-dominated by drought-deciduous or seral (both deciduous and evergreen) shrubs. Includes Artemisia californica, Baccharis pilularis, Ceanothus thyrsiflorus, Ericameria ericoides, Eriodictyon californicum, Eriogonum fasciculatum, Gaultheria shallon, Lupinus albifrons, L. arboreus, L. chamissonis, Rubus ursinus, and Toxicodendron diversilobum. Resprouting, deep-rooted, sclerophyllous shrubs may at times be characteristic, but not dominant. 4.Ericameria ericoides, Lupinus arboreus, and/or Lupinus chamissonis are dominant, co-dominant, or characteristic (sometimes with as little as 5% cover) in the shrub overstory on coastal dunes or bluffs. A variety of herbs, including many of the following nonnatives, may be present with high cover in the understory: Bromus diandrus, Carduus, Holcus, Rumex acetosella, and Vulpia bromoides. Vancouverian Coastal Dune and Bluff Macrogroup. California Coastal Evergreen Bluff and Dune Scrub Group. 4a.Lupinus arboreus dominates or co-dominates with Baccharis pilularis, and may co-occur with high cover by Vulpia bromoides, Festuca perennis, Bromus diandrus, and other nonnative grasses. Lupinus arboreus Alliance and Seminatural AllianceLupinus arboreus Association. 4b.Ericameria ericoides and/or Lupinus chamissonis dominate as individuals or in combination with Baccharis pilularis or Lupinus arboreus. Lupinus chamissonis – Ericameria ericoides AllianceLupinus chamissonis – Ericameria ericoides Association. 5. Shrublands dominated or co-dominated by native, disturbance-following, naturalized, or planted species including Artemisia californica, Cistus, Eriodictyon californicum, Eriogonum fasciculatum, Genista, Heterotheca oregana, Lupinus albifrons, Baccharis pilularis, Ceanothus thyrsiflorus, Gaultheria shallon, Rubus ursinus, Toxicodendron diversilobum, and/or Ulex europaeus. California Coastal Scrub Macrogroup. 5a.Eriodictyon californicum, Heterotheca oregana, or Lupinus albifrons dominates in the overstory. Central and South Coastal California Seral Scrub Group. 5a1.Eriodictyon californicum or Lupinus albifrons dominates, often in stands that are open and/or display recent evidence of fire or other disturbance. The understory may be composed of mixed native and nonnative herbs, which sometimes have higher cover than the overstory shrubs. Eriodictyon californicum – Lupinus albifrons Provisional AllianceEriodictyon californicum / Herbaceous Association Lupinus albifrons Association. 5a2.Heterotheca oregona, a perennial herb that acts like a short-lived shrub, dominates herbaceous stands that have seasonal hydrologic disturbance. Found along sunny, rocky stream terraces, seasonally dry streambeds, sandbars in river drainages, and cobbled gravel bars in floodplains. Heterotheca (oregona, sessiliflora) Provisional AllianceHeterotheca oregona Provisional Association. 5b.Baccharis pilularis, Ceanothus incanus, C. thyrsiflorus, Gaultheria shallon, Rubus ursinus, and/or Toxicodendron diversilobum dominate or co-dominate as shrubs. Shrubs are typically evergreen or winter-deciduous, not sclerophyllous or drought-deciduous species. Found along cool, coastal strips or on sheltered inland ravines and lower slopes, where species are tolerant of disturbance and tend to be overtopped and excluded by trees. California North Coastal & Mesic Scrub Group. 5b1.Baccharis pilularis dominates or co-dominates with Frangula californica, Toxicodendron diversilobum, or Rubus spp. in the shrub overstory. If Calamagrostis nutkaensis is co-dominant with B. pilularis, key to the C. nutkaensis Alliance (see Class C, step 9c3a). A variety of native and nonnative forbs and grasses may intermix in the herbaceous layer, sometimes with higher cover than Baccharis – including Avena, Bromus, Danthonia, Deschampsia, Elymus glaucus, Festuca, Hypochaeris, Nassella pulchra, and others. Baccharis pilularis AllianceBaccharis pilularis – Frangula californica – Rubus spp. Provisional Association Baccharis pilularis – Toxicodendron diversilobum Association Baccharis pilularis / Annual Grass – Herb Association Baccharis pilularis / Danthonia californica Association Baccharis pilularis / Deschampsia cespitosa Association Baccharis pilularis / Nassella pulchra Association Baccharis pilularis / Native Grass (Mixed) Association. 5b2.Ceanothus incanus or C. thyrsiflorus dominates in the overstory shrub layer, often with moderately dense cover. Diplacus aurantiacus, Heteromeles, Pseudotsuga menziesii, Quercus wislizeni, and other species may intermix as subdominants in the shrub and tree layers. Stands of C. incanus are included in the C. thyrsiflorus Alliance since they are more limited in distribution and are ecologically similar to C. thyrsiflorus. Ceanothus thyrsiflorus AllianceCeanothus incanus Provisional Association. 5b3.Gaultheria shallon and/or Rubus ursinus dominate or co-dominate with Anthoxanthum odoratum, Holcus lanatus, or Toxicodendron diversilobum on hillslopes, rock outcrops, coastal bluffs, or flats. If Arctostaphylos nummularia is co-dominant with Gaultheria, key to the Arctostaphylos (nummularia, sensitiva) Alliance below (step 6) Gaultheria shallon – Rubus (ursinus) Provisional AllianceGaultheria shallon – Rubus spp. Provisional Association Rubus ursinus Association. 5b4.Toxicodendron diversilobum dominates, sometimes intermixing with subdominant Baccharis pilularis and Rubus spp. If B. pilularis is present and co-dominant, key to the Baccharis pilularis Alliance (step 5b1). For this project, stands were encountered close to the coast, although they are likely to occur inland as well. Toxicodendron diversilobum AllianceToxicodendron diversilobum – Baccharis pilularis Provisional Association. 5c.Artemisia californica dominates and may intermix with Baccharis pilularis, Diplacus aurantiacus, and others. One stand, which may represent the northernmost occurrence of A. californica in the state, was encountered during field reconnaissance along Highway 1, approximately two miles southeast of Fort Ross. Central and South Coastal Californian Coastal Sage Scrub Group. Artemisia californica Alliance (no description provided) 5d.Cistus, Eriogonum fasciculatum, Genista, Ulex, or other Mediterranean shrubs not native to Sonoma County dominates in naturalized or planted stands. May be found invading disturbed areas, grasslands, or forest openings. Naturalized Nonnative Mediterranean Scrub Group. 5d1.Genista monspessulana, Ulex europaeus, or other broom species/hybrids dominate in the shrub overstory. Fire promotes broom invasions in woodland settings, however broom may invade coastal grasslands without fire. Broom (Cytisus scoparius and Others) Seminatural Alliance. 5d2.Cistus, Eriogonum fasciculatum or other naturalized/planted species dominates in the shrub overstory. Eriogonum fasciculatum, while native to other parts of California, does not occur naturally in Sonoma County. E. fasciculatum is often chosen for erosion control and slope stabilization projects because it grows relatively quickly, spreads well, and maintains a nice appearance year round. One stand was observed during field reconnaissance near Lake Sonoma, though other stands may be found elsewhere in the County. Planted stands do not fit under the Eriogonum fasciculatum Alliance, which is reserved for native vegetation. Naturalized Nonnative Mediterranean Scrub Group (key to group level only) Section III. Shrub vegetation dominated by evergreen sclerophyll-leaved species, including many that have developed growth strategies driven by a Mediterranean climate. Most of the core diagnostic species are endemic to California, including Adenostoma, Arctostaphylos, Ceanothus cuneatus, C. oliganthus, Cercocarpus montanus, Quercus berberidifolia, Q. durata, and shrubby Q. wislizeni. California Chaparral Macrogroup. 6.Arctostaphylos nummularia ssp. nummularia dominates or co-dominates with Gaultheria shallon or Vaccinium ovatum in maritime chaparral stands. Arctostaphylos columbiana, Chrysolepis chrysophylla var. minor, Pinus muricata, and Pteridium aquilinum are often present. Californian Maritime Chaparral Group. Arctostaphylos (nummularia, sensitiva) AllianceArctostaphylos nummularia ssp. nummularia Provisional Association. 7.Cercocarpus montanus and/or Quercus berberidifolia dominate or co-dominate with Adenostoma fasciculatum. Stands are mostly found inland from the coastal fog belt and are often composed of large shrubs occupying mesic sites such as north-facing slopes, concavities, and toeslopes with well-drained soils. Californian Mesic Chaparral Group. 7a.Cercocarpus montanus dominates or co-dominates with Adenostoma fasciculatum. Diplacus aurantiacus and Toxicodendron diversilobum are often present. Stands are frequently found on rocky, north-facing slopes, though they can occur on all aspects. Cercocarpus montanus AllianceCercocarpus montanus – Adenostoma fasciculatum Association. 7b.Quercus berberidifolia dominates or co-dominates with Cercocarpus montanus. Stands are found primarily on north-facing, steep slopes with well-drained soils. If Adenostoma fasciculatum is co-dominant with Q. berberidifolia, key to the mixed Quercus berberidifolia-Adenostoma fasciculatum Alliance directly below. Quercus berberidifolia AllianceQuercus berberidifolia Association Quercus berberidifolia – Cercocarpus montanus Association. 7c.Quercus berberidifolia and Adenostoma fasciculatum co-dominate and often occupy ecological interfaces between mesic sites that Quercus prefers and xeric sites that Adenostoma prefers. A variety of shrubs may intermix as subdominants. Quercus berberidifolia – Adenostoma fasciculatum AllianceQuercus berberidifolia – Adenostoma fasciculatum Association. 8.Arctostaphylos bakeri, Ceanothus jepsonii, and/or Quercus durata dominate or co-dominate in shrub vegetation restricted to or adapted to ultramafic soils and substrates (e.g., serpentine, gabbro) Californian Serpentine Chaparral Group. 8a.Arctostaphylos bakeri, a serpentine endemic, dominates or co-dominates with Quercus durata in the shrub overstory, often on upper slopes, flats, and ridges. Ceanothus jepsonii, Hesperocyparis sargentii, Heteromeles arbutifolia, and Melica torreyana are commonly present. Arctostaphylos (bakeri, montana) Provisional AllianceArctostaphylos bakeri Provisional Association. 8b.Quercus durata dominates or co-dominates with Adenostoma fasciculatum or Ceanothus jepsonii on ultramafic soils. Heteromeles arbutifolia and/or Umbellularia californica are often present in stands. Quercus durata AllianceQuercus durata – Adenostoma fasciculatum Provisional Association Quercus durata – Ceanothus jepsonii Provisional Association Quercus durata – Heteromeles arbutifolia / Umbellularia californica Association. 9.Ceanothus oliganthus and/or Quercus wislizeni var. frutescens dominate or co-dominate in the shrub overstory. These shrublands are more frost tolerant and typically found at higher, cooler, and more mesic sites than those in the California Xeric Chaparral Group. Californian Pre-Montane Chaparral Group. 9a.Ceanothus oliganthus dominates in shrublands that are often found in localized patches following fires. If Quercus wislizeni is co-dominant, key to the Q. wislizeni (shrub) Alliance directly below. Ceanothus oliganthus AllianceCeanothus oliganthus Association. 9b. Regenerating or shrubby Quercus wislizeni (var. frutescens) dominates or co-dominates with Ceanothus oliganthus. Stands that represent the possibly distinct Q. wislizeni var. frutescens and those with Q. wislizeni having shorter stature due to factors that limit height (e.g., fire) are included in this alliance. When Q. wislizeni dominates or co-dominates as an overstory tree, key to the Q. wislizeni (tree) Alliance. Umbellularia californica is often emergent, while a variety of thick- and soft-leaved shrubs intermix as subdominants. Quercus wislizeni (shrub) AllianceQuercus wislizeni var. frutescens Provisional Association Quercus wislizeni – Ceanothus oliganthus Provisional Association. 10. Sclerophyll (i.e., thick-leaved) shrublands dominated by one or more of the following taxa: Adenostoma, Arctostaphylos canescens, A. glandulosa, A. manzanita, A. stanfordiana, A. viscida, or Ceanothus cuneatus. Most stands occur on well-drained soils along exposures that are in full sun much of the growing season, including upper slopes, spur ridges, and convexities. Californian Xeric Chaparral Group. 10a.Arctostaphylos canescens, A. manzanita and/or A. stanfordiana dominate or co-dominate, sometimes with co-dominant Adenostoma fasciculatum. Found typically on volcanic, Franciscan, and greenstone substrates. One alliance is recognized for all three Arctostaphylos vegetation types, with associations specific to each species. Arctostaphylos (canescens, manzanita, stanfordiana) Provisional AllianceArctostaphylos canescens Provisional Association Arctostaphylos manzanita Provisional Association Arctostaphylos stanfordiana Provisional Association. 10b.Arctostaphylos glandulosa dominates or co-dominates with Adenostoma fasciculatum on convexities, outcrops, ridges, or slopes. Soils may be derived from serpentine or gabbro. Species commonly found as emergent trees or subdominant shrubs include Arbutus menziesii, Arctostaphylos spp., Diplacus aurantiacus, and Heteromeles arbutifolia. Arctostaphylos glandulosa Alliance2Arctostaphylos glandulosa Association Arctostaphylos glandulosa – Adenostoma fasciculatum Association. 10c.Arctostaphylos viscida (e.g., A. viscida ssp. pulchella) dominates or co-dominates with Ceanothus jepsonii on serpentine substrates. Ceanothus jepsonii may occasionally exceed A. viscida in cover when present. Arctostaphylos viscida AllianceArctostaphylos viscida – Ceanothus jepsonii Provisional Association. 10d.Ceanothus cuneatus dominates or co-dominates with Adenostoma fasciculatum, often on convexities with westerly exposures. A variety of shrubs may intermix, including Arctostaphylos, Baccharis, Eriodictyon, Heteromeles, Quercus durata, and others. Ceanothus cuneatus AllianceCeanothus cuneatus – Adenostoma fasciculatum Association. 10e.Adenostoma fasciculatum dominates, often with subdominant shrubs such as Arctostaphylos manzanita, A. stanfordiana, or Diplacus aurantiacus. Salvia sonomensis, an understory shrub, may have higher cover than Adenostoma. If A. fasciculatum co-dominates with Arctostaphylos spp., Ceanothus cuneatus, Cercocarpus montanus, Quercus berberidifolia, or Q. durata, key to one of the latter alliances instead of A. fasciculatum. Adenostoma fasciculatum AllianceAdenostoma fasciculatum Association Adenostoma fasciculatum – Arctostaphylos manzanita Association Adenostoma fasciculatum – Arctostaphylos stanfordiana / Salvia sonomensis Provisional Association Adenostoma fasciculatum – Diplacus aurantiacus Association Adenostoma fasciculatum Serpentine Association. Class C. Herbaceous Vegetation. Section I. Vegetation of a) freshwater wetland or riparian settings with water or wet ground present temporarily, seasonally, or throughout the growing season, b) saline or alkaline lowlands where water accumulates in the winter, or c) tidal salt or brackish marshes with seasonal or ephemeral inundations. Includes herbaceous vegetation dominated, co-dominated, or characterized by: Argentina, Azolla, Bidens, Bolboschoenus, Brasenia, Carex, Ceratophyllum, Distichlis, Eleocharis macrostachya, Grindelia stricta, Juncus arcticus, J. effusus, J. lescurii, J. patens, Lasthenia glaberrima, Lemna, Lepidium latifolium, Leymus triticoides, Ludwigia, Mimulus guttatus, Nuphar, Oenanthe, Persicaria, Pleuropogon, Sarcocornia (=Salicornia), Schoenoplectus, Scirpus, Spartina, Typha, and/or Xanthium. 1. Freshwater stands dominated by aquatic, floating or submerged plants, including Azolla, Brasenia, Ceratophyllum, Lemna, Ludwigia, and/or Nuphar. Found along slow-moving streams, still ponds, lakes, or on ground surfaces after water levels have dropped. Western North American Freshwater Aquatic Vegetation Macrogroup. 1a.Ludwigia hexapetala or L. peploides dominates, creating mats in shallow water or overwet soil. Other aquatic plants such as Azolla, Lemna, Polygonum, and Sparganium may be present. Naturalized Temperate Pacific Freshwater Vegetation Group. Ludwigia (hexapetala, peploides) Provisional Seminatural AllianceLudwigia (hexapetala, peploides) Provisional Seminatural Association. 1b.Azolla filiculoides or Azolla mexicana (=A. microphylla) dominates or characterizes stands on water or wet ground surfaces. If Lemna is co-dominant, key to this alliance. Temperate Freshwater Floating Mat Group. Azolla (filiculoides, mexicana) Alliance. 1c.Brasenia, Ceratophyllum, Lemna, or Nuphar dominates on water surfaces of streams, ponds, or lakes. Temperate Pacific Freshwater Aquatic Bed Group. 1c1.Ceratophyllum demersum dominates. One stand was encountered for this project, near the eastern border of Sonoma County in a dammed pond. Other stands are likely to occur in the county. Ceratophyllum demersum Provisional AllianceCeratophyllum demersum Western Provisional Association. 1c2.Brasenia schreberi or Nuphar lutea dominates on the water surface. Algae and a variety of hydrophytes may intermix, including Alisma, Carex, Hippuris vulgaris, Polygonum, and Oenanthe. Nuphar spp. – Potamogeton spp. – Lemna spp. Freshwater Aquatic Provisional AllianceBrasenia schreberi Provisional Association Nuphar lutea ssp. polysepala Provisional Association. 2. Freshwater or brackish stands dominated by Argentina, Carex pansa, C. obnupta, C. praegracilis, Juncus effusus, J. lescurii, J. patens, Oenanthe, Schoenoplectus, Scirpus microcarpus, and/or Typha, where water is present throughout all or most of the growing season. Soils have high organic content and may be poorly aerated. Western North American Freshwater Marsh Macrogroup. 2a.Schoenoplectus and/or Typha dominate in the herbaceous layer. Stands are found along streams, ditches, shores, bars, and channels of river mouth estuaries; around ponds and lakes; and in sloughs, swamps, and freshwater to brackish marshes. Arid West Freshwater Emergent Marsh Group. 2a1.Schoenoplectus acutus dominates or co-dominates with a species of Typha. Schoenoplectus acutus AllianceSchoenoplectus acutus Association. 2a2.Schoenoplectus californicus dominates or co-dominates with a species of Typha. Schoenoplectus californicus AllianceSchoenoplectus californicus Association. 2a3.Typha angustifolia, T. domingensis, and/or T. latifolia dominate in semipermanently flooded freshwater or brackish marshes. If Schoenoplectus acutus or S. californicus is co-dominant, key to the appropriate Schoenoplectus Alliance. Typha (angustifolia, domingensis, latifolia) AllianceTypha domingensis Association Typha latifolia Association. 2b.Argentina egedii, Bolboschoenus maritimus, Carex nudata, C. obnupta, C. praegracilis, C. pansa, Distichlis spicata, Eleocharis macrostachya, Juncus effusus, J. lescurii, J. patens, J. occidentalis, J. phaeocephalus, Oenanthe, and/or Scirpus microcarpus dominate or co-dominate in mesic or wetland settings. Holcus, Hypochaeris, Leontodon, Rumex, and Vulpia bromoides may intermix with similar cover. Stands may be found along seasonally flooded brackish marshes, coastal sand dunes, swales and plains, shallowly inundated woods, meadows, roadside ditches, mudflats, coastal swamps, lakeshores, marshes, and riverbanks. Vancouverian Coastal/Tidal Marsh and Meadow Group. 2b1.Argentina egedii (=A. anserina or Potentilla anserina ssp. pacifica) dominates or co-dominates with Bolboschoenus maritimus, Carex nudata, Distichlis spicata, Eleocharis macrostachya, Holcus lanatus, Juncus lescurii, Leontodon taraxacoides, and Rumex acetosella. If Oenanthe sarmentosa is co-dominant, key to the O. sarmentosa Alliance below. Argentina egedii AllianceArgentina egedii Association. 2b2.Carex praegracilis, C. pansa, or C. tumulicola dominates or co-dominates with Holcus lanatus or Lolium perenne. Stands of C. praegracilis are not restricted to the coast. One stand was sampled near the eastern boundary of the county in a moist depression on a hillside. Carex (pansa, praegracilis) Provisional AllianceCarex praegracilis Provisional Association. 2b3.Carex obnupta dominates in the herbaceous layer in a variety of freshwater and brackish settings near the coast. Carex obnupta AllianceCarex obnupta Association. 2b4.Juncus effusus, J. patens, J. occidentalis, and/or J. phaeocephalus dominate individually or in combination near the coast or farther inland. Co-dominant species may include Carex densa, Holcus lanatus, Hypochaeris radicata, Juncus bufonius, and Vulpia bromoides. Juncus (effusus, patens) Provisional AllianceJuncus effusus Association Juncus patens Provisional Association Juncus patens – Holcus lanatus Provisional Association Juncus patens – Juncus occidentalis Provisional Association Juncus phaeocephalus Provisional Association. 2b5.Juncus lescurii dominates or co-dominates with Agrostis stolonifera, Argentina egedii, Eleocharis macrostachya, or Juncus phaeocephalus in slightly brackish marshes or seeps near salt marshes. Juncus lescurii AllianceJuncus lescurii Association. 2b6.Oenanthe sarmentosa dominates or co-dominates with Argentina egedii in freshwater to slightly brackish marshes. Oenanthe sarmentosa AllianceOenanthe sarmentosa Association. 2b7.Scirpus microcarpus dominates in marshes, roadside ditches, and along stream banks. Larger forbs such as Conium maculatum, Oenanthe, Heracleum maximum, and Urtica dioica may be present as subdominants. Scirpus microcarpus AllianceScirpus microcarpus Association. 3. Salt and brackish marshes dominated or co-dominated by Bolboschoenus, Distichlis, Sarcocornia (=Salicornia), and/or Spartina. May appear as sparsely vegetated mudflats at low tide, or during restoration (as along San Pablo Bay). Mudflats with trace amounts of cover by herbs are included here (see 3e) North American Pacific Coastal Salt Marsh Macrogroup. Temperate Pacific Tidal Salt and Brackish Meadow Group. 3a.Bolboschoenus maritimus dominates or co-dominates with Sarcocornia (=Salicornia) pacifica. Bolboschoenus maritimus AllianceBolboschoenus maritimus Association Bolboschoenus maritimus – Sarcocornia pacifica Association. 3b.Distichlis spicata dominates or co-dominates with Frankenia salina and/or Jaumea carnosa. Sarcocornia pacifica may present as a subdominant. Distichlis spicata AllianceDistichlis spicata – Frankenia salina – Jaumea carnosa Association. 3c.Sarcocornia pacifica dominates or co-dominates with Jaumea carnosa, Distichlis spicata, and/or Lepidium latifolium. Sarcocornia pacifica (Salicornia depressa) AllianceSarcocornia pacifica Association Sarcocornia pacifica – Jaumea carnosa – Distichlis spicata Association Sarcocornia pacifica – Lepidium latifolium Association. 3d.Spartina foliosa dominates on mudflats, banks, berms, and margins of bays and deltas. Spartina foliosa AllianceSpartina foliosa Association. 3e. Mudflats or dry pond bottoms (sometimes in sites undergoing restoration) with trace amounts of cover by Agrostis avenacea, Sarcocornia pacifica, Sesuvium, and others. Cover by plants is so sparse and/or uneven that stands are not recognized by the USNVC. Mudflat/Dry Pond Bottom Mapping Unit. 4. Herbaceous stands dominated or characterized by Eleocharis macrostachya, Grindelia stricta, Lasthenia glaberrima, or Pleuropogon californicus. In the Manual of California Vegetation (Sawyer et al. 2009), these stands are recognized in a macrogroup associated with vernal pools, even though they do not always occur in vernal pool settings. Future versions of the hierarchy will likely split vernal pool and non–vernal pool stands into different alliances, groups, and macrogroups based on ecological and environmental differences. Many true vernal pool types occur in Sonoma County but are not treated in this report3. Western North America Vernal Pool Macrogroup. Californian Mixed Annual/Perennial Freshwater Vernal Pool / Swale Bottomland Group. 4a.Pleuropogon californicus and/or Lasthenia glaberrima are present with high cover in the herbaceous layer. If Eleocharis macrostachya or E. palustris is present and co-dominant, key to this alliance instead of Eleocharis. Stands typically occur in vernal pools or vernally influenced marshes. Lasthenia glaberrima AllianceLasthenia glaberrima – Pleuropogon californicus Association. 4b.Eleocharis macrostachya dominates in the herbaceous layer along lakeshores, streambeds, swales, vernal pools, pastures, ditches, and ponds. If Lasthenia glaberrima or Pleuropogon californicus is present with high cover, key to the L. glaberrima Alliance above. Eleocharis (acicularis, macrostachya) Provisional AllianceEleocharis macrostachya Association. 4c.Grindelia stricta dominates or co-dominates with nonnative herbs such as Raphanus sativus, Vulpia bromoides, and Bromus diandrus. Stands may be found on slightly elevated or drier ground adjacent to coastal dunes, salt or alkaline marshes, or on bluffs, levees, and road margins. Grindelia (stricta) Provisional AllianceGrindelia stricta Provisional Association. 5. Wetland herbaceous vegetation dominated or characterized by Bidens frondosa, Carex barbarae, C. nudata, C. serratodens, Juncus arcticus, Lepidium latifolium, Leymus triticoides, Mimulus guttatus, Persicaria lapathifolia, or Xanthium strumarium. Stands occupy settings where saturated soil or standing water throughout the growing season are key characteristics. Western North America Wet Meadow and Low Shrub Carr Macrogroup. 5a. Stands dominated or characterized by the species of Carex, Juncus, Leymus, or Mimulus mentioned above. Californian Warm-Temperate Marsh/Seep Group. 5a1.Carex barbarae dominates in seasonally or intermittently saturated wetlands. Carex barbarae AllianceCarex barbarae Association. 5a2.Carex nudata dominates along rocky creeks and streams below the high water mark. If Argentina egedii is co-dominant, key to the A. egedii Alliance (see 2b1) Carex nudata AllianceCarex nudata Association. 5a3.Carex serratodens dominates or co-dominates with Agoseris heterophylla, Juncus arcticus, or Leymus triticoides. Stands are often found on serpentine substrates. Carex serratodens Provisional AllianceCarex serratodens Provisional Association. 5a4.Juncus arcticus (var. balticus or mexicanus ) dominates in freshwater, brackish, or alkaline settings. Mentha pulegium, Poa pratensis, and other hydrophytes may intermix as subdominants. Juncus arcticus (var. balticus, mexicanus) AllianceJuncus arcticus (var. balticus, mexicanus) Association. 5a5.Leymus triticoides dominates or co-dominates with Briza maxima, Lolium perenne, or other nonnative grasses or forbs. Stands are found on poorly drained floodplains, valley bottoms, and brackish marsh margins. Leymus triticoides AllianceLeymus triticoides Association Leymus triticoides – Lolium perenne Association. 5a6.Mimulus guttatus or another wetland Mimulus species dominates or co-dominates in the herbaceous layer with Eleocharis, Juncus, or Lolium perenne. Stands are found in moist or saturated settings along streams, ephemeral cascades, ditches, fens, seeps, and springs. Mimulus (guttatus) AllianceMimulus guttatus Association. 5b. Stands dominated or characterized by the nonnative or ruderal taxa mentioned above: Bidens, Lepidium, Persicaria, and/or Xanthium. Naturalized Warm-Temperate Riparian and Wetland Group. 5b1.Lepidium latifolium dominates in the herbaceous layer along intermittently and seasonally flooded freshwater and brackish marshes and riparian corridors. In alkaline or saline settings, Distichlis spicata is commonly present. Lepidium latifolium Seminatural AllianceLepidium latifolium – Distichlis spicata Seminatural Association. 5b2.Bidens frondosa, Persicaria spp., and/or Xanthium spp. dominate in marshes and regularly disturbed vernally wet ponds, fields, and stream terraces. Persicaria lapathifolia – Xanthium strumarium Provisional AllianceBidens frondosa Provisional Association. Section II. Vegetation dominated or characterized by herbaceous species that occupy dry, seasonally moist, and usually well-drained sites that range from interior dry ridges and cliffs to ocean bluffs, dunes, and terraces with cooling summer fog and salty breezes. Stands are not wet or inundated as in Section I above. This group includes native and nonnative annual and perennial grasslands, seral herbaceous stands, dry cliff and canyon vegetation, and coastal dune/bluff vegetation. Dominant, co-dominant, and characteristic taxa include: Abronia, Agrostis gigantea, A. stolonifera, Allium falcifolium, Ambrosia, Ammophila, Anthoxanthum, Asclepias solanoana, Avena, Brachypodium, Brassica, Briza, Bromus, Calamagrostis, Carpobrotus, Centaurea, Cynosurus, Danthonia, Deschampsia, Elymus elymoides, E. glaucus, E. multisetus, Eriogonum cedrorum, E. luteolum, E. nudum, Erodium, Eryngium armatum, Eschscholzia, Festuca arundinacea, F. californica, F. idahoensis, Heterotheca, Holcus, Hordeum, Lasthenia californica, Leymus mollis, Lolium, Melica, Mesembryanthemum, Nassella, Phalaris, Plagiobothrys nothofulvus, Plantago erecta, Pteridium, Raphanus, Selaginella bigelovii, Streptanthus, and/or Vulpia. 6.Allium falcifolium, Asclepias solanoana, Eriogonum cedrorum, E. luteolum, E. nudum, Selaginella bigelovii, and/or Streptanthus morrisonii characterize or dominate stands on exposed rock. California Cliff, Scree, and Other Rock Vegetation Macrogroup. Central California Coast Ranges Cliff and Canyon Group. 6a.Selaginella bigelovii dominates or characterizes small stands on rock outcrops, cliff faces, or skeletal soils over gently to steeply sloping, impervious substrates. Moss and lichen species often intermix. Selaginella bigelovii Alliance. 6b. Sparsely vegetated herbaceous stands (generally less than 2% absolute cover) characterized by Allium falcifolium, Asclepias solanoana, Eriogonum cedrorum, E. luteolum, E. nudum, and/or Streptanthus morrisonii, growing on steep serpentine barrens with exposed gravel and bedrock. Allium falcifolium – Eriogonum spp. – Streptanthus spp. Provisional AllianceEriogonum luteolum – Streptanthus morrisonii Provisional Association. 7.Eriogonum nudum or Heterotheca oregona dominates or co-dominates with nonnative herbs in stands with recent or seasonal disturbance. California Coastal Scrub Macrogroup. Central and South Coastal California Seral Scrub Group. 7a.Eriogonum nudum dominates or co-dominates with Bromus diandrus, Erodium botrys, Vulpia bromoides, and others in herbaceous stands often occupying exposed convexities. Eriogonum (elongatum, nudum) Provisional AllianceEriogonum nudum Provisional Association. 7b.Heterotheca oregona, a perennial herb that acts like a short-lived shrub, dominates herbaceous stands with seasonal hydrologic disturbance. Found along sunny, rocky stream terraces, seasonally dry streambeds, sandbars in river drainages, and cobbled gravel bars in floodplains. Heterotheca (oregona, sessiliflora) Provisional AllianceHeterotheca oregona Provisional Association. 8. Native and nonnative annual forb/grass vegetation AND native perennial grasslands growing within the California Mediterranean climate. Stands are generally found in relatively drier sites than those in the Western North American Temperate Grassland and Meadow Macrogroup, which is more common near the coast (see step 9). Includes vegetation characterized by, but not limited to, Avena, Brassica, Bromus, Centaurea, Cynosurus, Elymus glaucus, Eschscholzia, Lasthenia californica, Lolium, Nassella, Melica, Plantago erecta, Pteridium aquilinum, Vulpia microstachys, and Plagiobothrys nothofulvus. California Annual and Perennial Grassland Macrogroup. 8a. Herbaceous vegetation dominated, co-dominated, or characterized by native annual forbs and grasses such as Eschscholzia, Lasthenia californica, Lupinus, Plagiobothrys, Plantago erecta, and Vulpia microstachys. Commonly occurring taxa include Avena, Bromus, Cryptantha, Geranium, Dichelostemma, Lolium, and Vulpia. Stands are found on upland slopes, flats, and ridges. California Annual Herb/Grass Group. 8a1.Eschscholzia californica, Lupinus bicolor, and/or L. nanus dominate or co-dominate with a variety of native and nonnative forbs and grasses. Eschscholzia (californica) – Lupinus (nanus) Provisional AllianceBromus hordeaceus – Lupinus nanus – Trifolium spp. Association Eschscholzia californica Association. 8a2.Plagiobothrys nothofulvus dominates and intermixes with a variety of native and nonnative forbs and grasses. Plagiobothrys nothofulvus AlliancePlagiobothrys nothofulvus – Daucus pusillus – Trifolium microcephalum Provisional Association. 8a3.Lasthenia californica, Erigeron glaucus, Calycadenia multiglandulosa, C. truncata, Hemizonia congesta, Lomatium, Lotus humistratus, Micropus californicus, Plantago erecta, and/or Vulpia microstachys dominate individually or in combination in the herbaceous layer. Lasthenia californica, Plantago erecta, and/or Vulpia microstachys are often present, sometimes with sparse cover. Lasthenia californica – Plantago erecta – Vulpia microstachys AllianceErigeron glaucus – Lasthenia californica Provisional Association Hemizonia congesta – Lolium perenne Provisional Association Lotus humistratus – Plantago erecta – Lomatium spp. Provisional Association Micropus californicus Provisional Association Vulpia microstachys – Plantago erecta – Calycadenia (truncata, multiglandulosa) Association. 8b.Bromus carinatus, Elymus glaucus, Melica californica, Nassella pulchra, and/or Pteridium aquilinum, all native perennial grasses, are dominant or characteristic in stands, sometimes with equal or greater cover of nonnative herbs. California Perennial Grassland Group. 8b1. Bromus carinatus, Elymus glaucus and/or Pteridium aquilinum dominate or co-dominate near meadows, in forested openings, and on elevated flats. Anagallis arvensis, Bromus hordeaceus, Geranium dissectum, Rumex acetosella, and Vulpia bromoides are often present. Elymus glaucus – Bromus carinatus Provisional AllianceBromus carinatus Provisional Association Elymus glaucus Association Pteridium aquilinum Provisional Association. 8b2.Melica californica and/or Nassella pulchra are dominant, co-dominant, or characteristic in stands. Achnatherum lemmonii, Avena, Bromus, Hemizonia congesta, Lolium perenne, Plantago erecta, and/or P. lanceolata intermix as dominant, co-dominant, or characteristic taxa in associations of this alliance. Nassella spp. – Melica spp. Provisional AllianceMelica californica Provisional Association Nassella pulchra Association Nassella pulchra – Achnatherum lemmonii Provisional Association Nassella pulchra – Avena spp. – Bromus spp. Association Nassella pulchra – Hemizonia congesta Provisional Association Nassella pulchra – Lolium perenne – Plantago erecta Serpentine Provisional Association Nassella pulchra – Melica californica – Annual Grass Association Nassella pulchra – Plantago lanceolata Provisional Association. 8c. Herbaceous vegetation strongly dominated by nonnative grasses and forbs such as Avena, Brachypodium, Brassica, Briza, Bromus, Centaurea, Cynosurus, Danthonia pilosa, Erodium, Lolium, Nassella manicata, and Raphanus. Native herbaceous species have insignificant cover in these stands, especially during the active growing season. Stands are found in foothills, rangelands, fallow fields, woodland openings, riparian areas, and disturbed settings. Mediterranean California Naturalized Annual and Perennial Grassland Group. 8c1.Avena, Brachypodium, Briza, Bromus, and/or Erodium dominate individually or in combination. Avena spp. – Bromus spp. Provisional Seminatural AllianceAvena barbata Seminatural Association Brachypodium distachyon Seminatural Association Briza maxima Provisional Seminatural Association Bromus diandrus – Avena spp. Seminatural Association Bromus hordeaceus – Erodium botrys Seminatural Association. 8c2.Brassica nigra, Raphanus sativus, or another nonnative mustard dominates in the herbaceous layer, often in old or active agriculture lands. Brassica nigra and Other Mustards Seminatural AllianceBrassica nigra Seminatural Association Raphanus sativus Seminatural Association. 8c3.Centaurea solstitialis or another nonnative species of Centaurea dominates herbaceous stands. Centaurea (solstitialis, melitensis) Seminatural AllianceCentaurea solstitialis Seminatural Association. 8c4.Cynosurus echinatus, Danthonia pilosa, and/or Nassella manicata dominate or co-dominate in the herbaceous layer. Anagallis, Avena, Lolium, Plantago lanceolata, Rumex, and Vulpia bromoides are often present. Cynosurus echinatus Seminatural AllianceCynosurus echinatus – (Danthonia pilosa – Nassella manicata) Provisional Seminatural Association. 8c5.Lolium perenne dominates or co-dominates with Avena barbata, Bromus hordeaceus, Hordeum marinum, H. murinum, Medicago, Trifolium subterraneum, and other nonnatives in herbaceous stands. Often found on moist or poorly drained sites, on or off serpentine. Lolium perenne Seminatural AllianceLolium perenne Seminatural Association. 9. Herbaceous vegetation dominated, co-dominated, or characterized by native or nonnative perennial grasses. Stands are generally found in moister settings than those in the California Annual and Perennial Grassland Macrogroup (see step 8), and are often coastal. The grasses included are: Agrostis gigantea, A. stolonifera, Anthoxanthum, Calamagrostis nutkaensis, Danthonia californica, Deschampsia cespitosa, Elymus elymoides, E. multisetus, Festuca arundinacea, F. idahoensis, Holcus, Hordeum brachyantherum and/or Phalaris aquatica. Note: stands dominated by Lolium perenne key out in step 8 above. 9a.Agrostis, Anthoxanthum, Festuca arundinacea, Holcus, and/or Phalaris are dominant, co-dominant, or characteristic in herbaceous stands. Western North American Temperate Grassland and Meadow Macrogroup. 9a1. Nonnative, slightly mesic, disturbed pasturelands dominated or co-dominated by the following perennial grasses: Agrostis gigantea, A. stolonifera, Anthoxanthum, Festuca arundinacea, Holcus, and/or Phalaris. If native species are present and co-dominant, key to an alliance dominated or characterized by natives. Found in wet settings, including brackish marshes, meadows, stream terraces, wet pastures, agricultural wetlands, or tidal zones. Vancouverian and Rocky Mountain Naturalized Perennial Grassland Group. 9a1a.Agrostis gigantea, A. stolonifera, and/or Festuca arundinacea dominate or co-dominate in the herbaceous layer. The stands encountered for this project were dominated by F. arundinacea, though stands dominated by Agrostis may be present in Sonoma County. Agrostis (gigantea, stolonifera) – Festuca arundinacea Seminatural AllianceFestuca arundinacea Provisional Seminatural Association. 9a1b.Holcus lanatus and/or Anthoxanthum odoratum dominate individually or in combination. Other co-dominants may include Briza maxima, Pteridium aquilinum, Rumex acetosella, and Vulpia bromoides. Holcus lanatus – Anthoxanthum odoratum Seminatural AllianceHolcus lanatus Seminatural Association Holcus lanatus – Anthoxanthum odoratum Seminatural Association. 9a1c.Phalaris aquatica dominates in naturalized or planted stands. Other nonnative herbs, such as Carduus pycnocephalus may be present with similar cover. Phalaris aquatica Seminatural AlliancePhalaris aquatica Provisional Seminatural Association. 9b. Native grasslands dominated, co-dominated, or characterized by the following perennial grasses: Bromus carinatus, Elymus elymoides, E. glaucus, E. multisetus, Festuca californica, F. idahoensis, or Pteridium aquilinum. May occur near the coast or inland. Western Dry Upland Perennial Grassland Group. 9b1.Elymus elymoides or E. multisetus dominates or co-dominates in stands on serpentine soils, often on southerly exposures. Stands of Elymus multisetus with Eschscholzia californica and/or Plantago erecta were encountered most often in the sites visited for this project; Dichelostemma capitatum, Eriogonum nudum, Lotus humistratus, and Minuartia douglasii were also commonly present. Elymus (elymoides, multisetus) Provisional AllianceElymus multisetus – (Eschscholzia californica – Plantago erecta) Provisional Association. 9b2.Festuca idahoensis dominates or co-dominates with Danthonia californica and/or Elymus multisetus. Bromus carinatus, Elymus glaucus, Plantago erecta, and a variety of native and non-native forbs and grasses may intermix as subdominants. Occasionally, the larger Festuca californica may replace F. idahoensis in somewhat shadier or less exposed sites. Festuca idahoensis AllianceFestuca californica Provisional Association Festuca idahoensis – Bromus carinatus Association Festuca idahoensis – Danthonia californica Provisional Association Festuca idahoensis Ultramafic Provisional Association. 9c. Native, mesic to moist, primarily coastal grasslands dominated, co-dominated, or characterized by Calamagrostis nutkaensis, Deschampsia cespitosa, Danthonia californica, Eryngium armatum, and/or Hordeum brachyantherum. Baccharis pilularis, Briza maxima, Holcus lanatus, Nassella pulchra, and/or Vulpia bromoides commonly intermix in stands. Found in a variety of settings, including dunes, bluffs, meadows, valley bottoms, alluvial slopes, terraces, meadows, and seasonally flooded areas with moderate salinity. 9c1.Deschampsia cespitosa, Danthonia californica, and/or Eryngium armatum dominate or co-dominate individually or in combination (if Holcus lanatus has the highest cover, but these three species have at least 10% combined cover, key to Deschampsia). Settings range from coastal dunes and bluffs to inland plains (e.g., Santa Rosa Plain) to montane meadows. Western Cordilleran Montane–Boreal Wet Meadow Macrogroup. Western Cordilleran Montane–Boreal Mesic Wet Meadow. Group. Deschampsia cespitosa AllianceDeschampsia cespitosa – Danthonia californica Association Deschampsia cespitosa – Eryngium armatum Provisional Association Deschampsia cespitosa – Holcus lanatus Provisional Association. 9c2.Hordeum brachyantherum dominates or co-dominates with Bromus carinatus, Hypochaeris, Lolium perenne, Lotus corniculatus, Plantago erecta, and Trifolium subterraneum in moist meadows, along stream terraces and coastal bluffs, and near seeps and springs. Western Cordilleran Montane Shrubland and Grassland Macrogroup. Western Cordilleran Montane Moist Graminoid Meadow Group. Hordeum brachyantherum AllianceHordeum brachyantherum Association. 9c3.Calamagrostis nutkaensis dominates or co-dominates with Baccharis pilularis OR stands are dominated or characterized by Danthonia californica with Briza maxima, Nassella pulchra, and/or Vulpia bromoides. Stands are found along valley bottoms, lower portions of alluvial slopes, terraces, floodplains, and ridges. Vancouverian Lowland Grassland and Shrubland Macrogroup. Vancouverian Coastal Grassland Group. 9c3a.Calamagrostis nutkaensis dominates or co-dominates with Baccharis pilularis. Heracleum maximum, Holcus lanatus, Juncus patens, and/or Rubus ursinus often intermix in stands. Calamagrostis nutkaensis AllianceCalamagrostis nutkaensis / Baccharis pilularis Association. 9c3b.Danthonia californica dominates OR characterizes stands in combination with 1) Nassella pulchra or 2) Briza maxima and/or Vulpia bromoides. In the latter two cases, Danthonia and the other species share at least 15% relative cover in the herb layer, with other nonnative grasses and forbs sometimes having higher cover (e.g., Cynosurus echinatus, Holcus lanatus, and Hypochaeris radicata) Danthonia californica AllianceDanthonia californica – (Briza maxima – Vulpia bromoides) Provisional Association Danthonia californica – Nassella pulchra Provisional Association. 10. Coastal dune, bluff, meadow, and other vegetation dominated by herbaceous species such as Abronia, Ambrosia, Ammophila, Carpobrotus, Leymus mollis, and Mesembryanthemum. 10a. Native species, including Abronia latifolia, Ambrosia chamissonis, Artemisia pycnocephala, and/or Leymus mollis dominate or co-dominate on dunes or bluffs. Plants are adapted to salt spray, wind, and shifting sands and are thus capable of colonizing relatively unstable and sterile substrates. Vancouverian Coastal Dune and Bluff Macrogroup. Vancouverian/Pacific Dune Mat Group. 10a1.Abronia latifolia, Ambrosia chamissonis, and/or Artemisia pycnocephala dominate, sometimes with Calystegia soldanella or Polygonum paronychia occurring as associated species. Cakile maritima, Ammophila arenaria, Camissonia cheiranthifolia, and Eriogonum latifolium may be present. Abronia latifolia – Ambrosia chamissonis AllianceAmbrosia chamissonis Provisional Association Artemisia pycnocephala – Calystegia soldanella Association Artemisia pycnocephala – Polygonum paronychia Association. 10a2.Leymus mollis dominates in the herbaceous layer. Abronia, Artemisia pycnocephala, Cakile, and other herbaceous species may be present as subdominants. Leymus mollis AllianceLeymus mollis – Abronia latifolia – (Cakile spp.) Association. 10b. Nonnatives, including Ammophila, Carpobrotus, and/or Mesembryanthemum dominate on dunes, bluffs, or disturbed lands. Emergent shrubs such as Baccharis pilularis or Lupinus arboreus may be present. California–Vancouverian Seminatural Littoral Scrub and Herb Vegetation Group 10b1. Ammophila arenaria is strongly dominant in the herbaceous layer. Ammophila arenaria Seminatural AllianceAmmophila arenaria Seminatural Association. 10b2.Carpobrotus and/or Mesembryanthemum dominate on bluffs, dunes, or disturbed lands, often forming impenetrable mats that prevent natives from establishing. Mesembryanthemum spp. – Carpobrotus spp. Provisional Seminatural Alliance. Carpobrotus (edulis) Provisional Seminatural Association

Chapter 8. Digital Elevation Models. Introduction

What Is a DEM?

Types of DEMs

DTMs

DSMs

DHMs

How DEMs Are Created

DEMs Produced by Photogrammetry

DEMs Produced from Lidar

DEM Derivatives

Sources of Data for DEMs

Quality and Accuracy

Summary — Practical Considerations

Chapter 9. Data Exploration: Tools for Linking Variation in the Imagery to Variation on the Ground. Introduction

Image Elements

Tone and Color

Shape

Size

Pattern

Shadow

Texture

Location

Context

Height

Date

Summary: The Confluence of Evidence

Derivative Bands

Ratios

Transformations

Principal Components Analysis

Tasseled-Cap Transformation

Indices

Tools for Linking Variation in the Imagery to Variation on the Ground (Data Exploration)

Spectral Pattern Analysis

Bispectral Plots

Feature Space Analysis

Divergence Analysis

Introducing Other Sources of Geospatial Data to Capture Variation on the Ground

Data Sources. Elevation and Landscape

Elevation

Slope and Aspect

Hillshades

Solar Insolation

Hydrology. Flow Accumulation

Stream Centerlines

Hydrologic Data Sources

Precipitation and Temperature

A Case Study: Fog in Sonoma County

Soils

Forest Canopy Metrics (Derived from Lidar)

Wildfire History

Summary — Practical Considerations

Chapter 10. Image Classification. Introduction

Basics of Manual Interpretation

Semiautomated Image Classification. Introduction

History

Image Segmentation

Classification Algorithms

Unsupervised Classification

Supervised Classification

Training Sites

Guidelines for Training-Site Sample Selection

Manually Derived Rulesets

Case Study—Rulesets for Chesapeake Bay Regional Watershed Mapping

Traditional Techniques

Machine Learning Techniques

CART

Case Study—a CART Decision Tree for Classifying a Forested Stand as Deciduous or Evergreen

Random Forests

Support Vector Machines

Artificial Neural Networks

Machine Learning Best Practices

Combined Approaches

Map Validation and Editing

Summary — Practical Considerations

Chapter 11. Change Analysis. Introduction

Characterization of Change

Methods of Change Detection

Multitemporal Map-to-Map Comparisons

Multitemporal Image Analysis

Manual Interpretation of Change from Imagery

Image Differencing

Multitemporal Unsupervised and Supervised Classification

Continuous Change Analysis

Multitemporal Image-to-Map Comparisons

Masking or Postclassification Change Detection

Cross-Correlation Analysis

Managing the Nonchange Differences

Registration Differences

Classification-Scheme Differences

Map Error Differences

Image Variance

Summary—Practical Considerations

Chapter 12. Accuracy Assessment. Introduction

Assessing Map Accuracy

Positional Map Accuracy Assessment

Initial Considerations

Collecting Reference Data

Computing Descriptive Statistics

Thematic Map Accuracy Assessment

Initial Considerations

Collecting Reference Data

Computing Descriptive Statistics

Basic Analysis Techniques

Summary—Practical Considerations

Chapter 13. Managing and Serving Imagery

Managing Image Collections with Mosaic Datasets

Mosaic Dataset Structure. Introduction

Items, Footprints, and the Mosaic Dataset Attribute Table. Footprints

Mosaic Dataset Attribute Table

Mosaic Dataset Overviews

Mosaic Methods — Dynamic Mosaicking

Mosaic Dataset Properties

Image Properties

Catalog Properties

Download Properties

Creating and Maintaining Mosaic Datasets. Creating Mosaic Datasets

Adding Rasters

Raster Functions

On-the-Fly Processing with the Mosaic Dataset Function Chain

Advanced Tools. Processing Templates

Mosaic Dataset Block Adjustment

Mosaic Dataset Color Correction

Mosaic Dataset Seamline Generation

Use Cases for Mosaic Datasets. Scaling to Massive Collections

Integrating Satellite Data with Different Levels of Processing

Imagery from Unmanned Aerial Systems and Aircraft

Elevation Data

Scientific Multidimensional Rasters

Full-Motion Video

Publishing Mosaic Datasets as Image Services. Introduction

Tile Cache Services. About Tile Cache Services

Cache Configuration

Tiling Scheme

Cache Formats for Image Services

On-Demand Cache

Cache Best Practices. Test before Deploying

Optimizing Services for Performance

Client-Defined Processing

Open Standards

Cloud Considerations

Spatial Analysis in the Cloud — Geoprocessing Services. Overview of Geoprocessing Services

Geoprocessing Service Examples

Summary—Practical Considerations

Chapter 14. Concluding Thoughts

Acronyms

Glossary. A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

M

N

O

P

Q

R

S

T

U

V

W

X

References

Image Credits. Cover

Index

Отрывок из книги

This book would not have been possible without the generous contributions of our colleagues who reviewed the text, permitted us to include their graphics, provided case studies, and offered valuable insights. In particular we would like to thank Maggi Kelly, Gerald Kinn, Jarlath O’Neil-Dunne, and Cassandra Pallai. We would also like to express our gratitude to the Sonoma County Agricultural Preservation and Open Space District, and the California Department of Fish and Wildlife—our project with them has enriched this book with many real world examples. Esri personnel have made this book truly professional and we thank their editors, product managers, application developers, and graphic artists. We are especially grateful to Esri’s Claudia Naber, who shepherded the book from inspiration to completion, and Peter Becker whose commitment, persistent questions, and leadership continually raised our standards and improved the content. Finally, we thank our families whose patience and support gave us the freedom and energy to pursue our passion for imagery and to share it with others in this book.

Then we start to ask questions. Why do trees no longer grow here? Can trees grow here again? How much has this city expanded? Will the transportation corridors support emergency relief? Why did this house burn while the one next door is untouched by flames? What crops flourish here? Will they produce enough food to feed the people of this region? Why has this landscape changed so dramatically? Who changed it? When we bring imagery and GIS together we can answer these questions and many more. By combining imagery and GIS, we can inventory our resources, monitor change over time, and predict the possible impacts of natural and human activities on our communities and the world.

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At the highest altitudes, earth observation satellites carry remote sensors around the earth in orbit at altitudes ranging from 100 to over 22,000 miles above sea level. Maintaining orbital altitude is a constant requirement for satellites because of the earth’s steady gravitational pull and atmospheric drag. Lower satellites must travel at higher velocities because they experience greater gravitational pull than satellites at higher altitudes. Thus, maintaining orbit requires a constant balance between gravity and the satellite’s velocity. Satellites with fuel onboard maintain their orbital altitude by using the fuel to maintain their velocities. However, at some point all satellites fall back to earth and burn up in the atmosphere, usually in controlled descents.

Speed is the rate of motion of an object expressed as the distance covered per unit of time. It determines the level of detail and amount of area (extent) a remote sensing system can collect. The altitude and speed flown while collecting remotely sensed data are also determined by the desired resolution and coverage, as well as the sensor being used (e.g., digital or film camera, lidar). Remote sensing platform speeds can range from stationary (zero velocity) to over 17,000 miles per hour. Most terrestrial platforms are stationary. Mobile terrestrial platforms such as cars and boats tend to travel at low speeds to enable the collection of very-high-spatial-resolution imagery. Fixed-wing UASs and aircraft typically fly at 55 to 650 miles per hour. Helicopters and rotor UASs, with their ability to hover, typically fly at 0 to 150 miles per hour. The speed at which a satellite travels in orbit is determined by its altitude. The lower the altitude, the faster the satellite must travel to remain in orbit and not fall to earth. Satellites in near-circular orbits have near-constant speeds, while satellites in highly elliptical orbits will speed up and slow down depending on the distance from the earth and direction of motion.

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