Notes on Canine Internal Medicine

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Оглавление
Kathryn F. Murphy. Notes on Canine Internal Medicine
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
NOTES ON CANINE INTERNAL MEDICINE
PREFACE
Note
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
USING THIS BOOK. SECTION 1
SECTION 2
SECTION 3
SECTION 4
SECTION 5
COMMONLY USED ABBREVIATIONS
SECTION 1 PRESENTING COMPLAINTS
1.1 ABORTION. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Infectious
Non‐infectious
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Infectious
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
Tests of dam
1.2 ALOPECIA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Primary follicular disease
Secondary follicular disease
Self‐trauma when pruritic
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Primary follicular disease
Secondary follicular disease
Self‐mutilation
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues
Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Dermatological investigations
Imaging
Special tests
1.3 ALTERED BEHAVIOUR. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Pain
Intracranial disorders
Metabolic disorders
Intestinal disorders
Urinary tract disorders
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Metabolic disorders
Intracranial disorders
Dermatological disorders
Ocular disorders causing pain or impairing vision
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.4 ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS. Grades of dysfunction. Depressed or obtunded
COMMON CAUSES. Congenital
Inflammatory
Infectious
Iatrogenic
Metabolic
Neoplastic
Vascular
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Congenital
Infectious
Iatrogenic
Vascular
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.5 ANOREXIA/HYPOREXIA/INAPPETENCE. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Anorexia/inappetence
Pseudoanorexia
UNCOMMON CAUSES. True anorexia
Pseudo‐anorexia
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Haematology
Biochemistry
Special tests
1.6 ANOSMIA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging
Special tests
1.7 ANURIA/OLIGURIA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Infectious causes
Toxins
Drugs
Vascular
Miscellaneous
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Infectious
Vascular
Miscellaneous
Drugs
Neoplasia
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.8 ATAXIA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS. Cerebellar ataxia
Vestibular ataxia
Proprioceptive (sensory) ataxia
COMMON CAUSES. Cerebellar ataxia
Vestibular ataxia
Central vestibular (brainstem or cerebellar)
Proprioceptive (sensory) ataxia
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Cerebellar ataxia
Vestibular ataxia
Proprioceptive (sensory) ataxia
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.9 BLEEDING. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Disorders of affected organ
Systemic disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Disorders of affected organ
Systemic disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special tests
1.10 BLINDNESS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Pre‐retinal
Retinal
Optic nerve
Central nervous system
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Pre‐retinal
Retinal
Optic nerve
Central nervous system
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.11 CONSTIPATION. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Anorectal pain
Dietary
Drug‐induced
Environmental
Extraluminal obstruction
Intraluminal obstruction
Neuromuscular disease
Orthopaedic disease (pain and failure to posture)
Water‐electrolyte abnormalities
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Anorectal disease
Drug‐induced
Extraluminal obstruction
Intraluminal obstruction
Metabolic
Neuromuscular disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Contrast radiographs (barium enema)
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.12 CORNEAL OPACITY. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. White
Brown/black pigment
Red
UNCOMMON CAUSES. White
Brown/black pigment
Blue
Red
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special tests
1.13 COUGHING. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Allergic/immune‐mediated
Cardiovascular
Environmental irritants
Infectious/inflammatory
Parasitic
Pleural effusion
Physical/traumatic
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Allergic
Cardiovascular
Environmental irritants
Infectious/inflammatory
Neoplastic
Parasitic
Physical/traumatic
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
CLINICAL CLUES
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Thoracic radiographs
Special tests
1.14 DEAFNESS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Conductive
Sensorineural
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Conductive
Sensorineural
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Otoscopic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Special tests
1.15 DIARRHOEA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
1.15.1 ACUTE DIARRHOEA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Primary GI disease. Dietary
Drug/toxin
Infection – Bacterial
Infection – Parasitic
Infection – Viral
Obstructive (surgical)
Secondary, non‐GI disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Primary GI disease. Dietary
Drug/toxin
Infection – Bacterial
Infection – Parasitic
Infection – Rickettsial
Infection – Viral (often mild)
Obstructive (surgical)
Secondary, non‐GI disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Faecal examination
Imaging. Radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.15.2 CHRONIC DIARRHOEA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Primary GI disease
Secondary non‐GI disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Primary GI disease
Secondary non‐GI disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Faecal examination
Imaging. Radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.16 DROOLING. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Pseudoptyalism
Ptyalism
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Pseudoptyalism
Ptyalism
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Radiographs
Special tests
1.17 DYSPHAGIA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Structural or functional diseases of the mouth and/or temporo‐mandibular joint and/or pharynx:
Oesophageal disorders
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
CLINICAL CLUES. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Oral and pharyngeal sampling
Imaging. Radiographs
Special tests
1.18 DYSPNOEA/TACHYPNOEA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Haematological disorders
Lower airway disorders
Mediastinal disorders
Peritoneal cavity disorders
Pleural/body wall disorders
Pulmonary parenchymal disorders
Upper airway disorders. Brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome (BOAS)
Laryngeal disease
Tracheal disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Haematological disorders
Lower airway disorders. Extraluminal intrathoracic tracheal and/or bronchial compression
Tracheal diseases affecting thoracic trachea
Mediastinal disorders
Nasal cavity obstruction
Peritoneal cavity disorders
Pleural/body wall disorders
Pulmonary parenchymal disorders
Upper airway disorders. Cervical tracheal disease
Laryngeal disease
Miscellaneous
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
LABORATORY FINDINGS
IMAGING
SPECIAL TESTS
1.19 DYSURIA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS. Major signs
Other potential signs
COMMON CAUSES. Lower urinary tract disorders
Neurological causes
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Lower urinary tract disorders
Neurological causes
Structural
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.20 DYSTOCIA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON AND UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound/Doppler
Special tests
1.21 EPISTAXIS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Nasal disease
Systemic disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Nasal disease
Systemic disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues
Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Special tests
1.22 EXERCISE INTOLERANCE. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Cardiovascular disease
Endocrine disease
Generalised weakness
Metabolic disease
Muscular disease
Neurological/spinal disease
Neuromuscular disease
Respiratory disease
Skeletal disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Endocrine disease
Metabolic disease
Miscellaneous
Muscular disease
Neurological/spinal disease
Skeletal disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues
Predisposition
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special tests
1.23 FAECAL INCONTINENCE. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Anal disease
Neurogenic sphincter mechanism incontinence
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Neurogenic sphincter incontinence
Neoplasia
Myopathy
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Contrast radiographs
Special tests
1.24 FLATULENCE/BORBORYGMI. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Aerophagia
Diseases causing malabsorption and alterations in microbiome
Ingestion of non‐absorbable substances
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues
Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.25 HAEMATEMESIS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Endocrine
Gastric ulceration
Generalised bleeding problem q.v. section 1.9. GI disease
Swallowed blood
UNCOMMON CAUSES
Duodenal ulceration
Gastric ulceration
Shock
Swallowed blood
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special tests
1.26 HAEMATOCHEZIA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Anal disease
Generalised bleeding disorder
Generalised GI disease
Large intestinal disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Large intestinal disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Faecal examination
Imaging
Special tests
1.27 HAEMATURIA AND DISCOLOURED URINE. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES – HAEMATURIA. Urinary tract disease
Systemic disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES – HAEMATURIA. Urinary tract disease
Systemic disease
COMMON CAUSES – DISCOLOURED URINE. Red or brown urine – see haematuria
Dark yellow urine
UNCOMMON CAUSES – DISCOLOURED URINE. Red or brown urine – also see haematuria
Dark yellow urine
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.28 HAEMOPTYSIS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Respiratory tract disease
Systemic disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Respiratory tract disease
Systemic disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.29 HALITOSIS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
Abnormal ingestive behavior or pica
Oral diseases
UNCOMMON CAUSES
Abnormal ingestive behaviour or pica
Oral diseases
Oral contact with contaminated site
Remote causes producing malodorous exhalation
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
1.30 HEAD TILT. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
Cerebellar disorder
Vestibular disorder
COMMON CAUSES. Cerebellar disorder
Vestibular disorder
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Cerebellar disorder
Vestibular disorder
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.31 MELAENA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Endocrine
Generalised bleeding problem q.v. section 1.9. Gastric neoplasia
Gastric ulceration
Intestinal disease
Intestinal neoplasia
Swallowed blood
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Gastric ulceration
Intestinal disease
Pancreatic disease
Swallowed blood
Severe oesophageal disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Palpation
Digital rectal examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special tests
1.32 NASAL DISCHARGE. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Special tests
1.33 NYSTAGMUS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS. Cerebellar disorders
Vestibular disorders
COMMON CAUSES. Cerebellar disorders
Vestibular disorders
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Cerebellar disorders
Vestibular disorders
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.34 PARESIS/PARALYSIS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues
Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound examination
Special tests
1.35 PERINATAL DEATH. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Infectious
Non‐infectious
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Infectious
Non‐infectious
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Special tests
1.36 POLYPHAGIA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Behavioural
Drugs
Endocrine disease
GI disease
Physiological
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Metabolic/endocrine disease
Drugs
Neurological
Renal
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special tests
1.37 POLYURIA/POLYDIPSIA (PU/PD) DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Primary polydipsia
Primary polyuria. Osmotic diuresis
Renal insensitivity to antidiuretic hormone (ADH) = Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus (NDI)
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Primary polydipsia
Primary polyuria
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Palpation
Auscultation
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Abdominal radiographs
Thoracic radiographs
Special tests
1.38 PREPUTIAL DISCHARGE. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Haemorrhagic
Purulent
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Haemorrhagic
Purulent
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Contrast radiographs
Ultrasound examination
Special tests
1.39 PRURITUS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Special tests
1.40 RED EYE (AND PINK EYE) DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special tests
1.41 REGURGITATION. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Intra‐luminal obstruction
Megaoesophagus
Oesophagitis
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Extra‐luminal obstruction
Intra‐luminal obstruction
Ingestive causes
Megaoesophagus
Mural disease
Myopathies
Neuropathies/junctionopathies
Toxins
Miscellaneous
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs of conscious dog
Contrast radiographs: barium swallow after plain films
Endoscopy
Special tests
1.42 SEIZURES. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Extracranial causes
Intracranial causes
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Extracranial causes
Intracranial causes
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.43 SNEEZING. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Special tests
1.44 STIFFNESS, JOINT SWELLING AND GENERALISED LAMENESS. DEFINITIONS
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Spinal pain
Musculoskeletal pain
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Spinal pain
Musculoskeletal pain
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Orthopaedic and neurological examinations
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Imaging
Special tests
1.45 STUNTING. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues
Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.46 TENESMUS AND DYSCHEZIA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS. Primary signs
Associated signs
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Rectal examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.47 TREMORS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Cerebellar disease
Idiopathic
Metabolic disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Cerebellar disease
Miscellaneous
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Imaging
Special tests
1.48 URINARY INCONTINENCE. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Storage disorders
Overflow incontinence
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Storage disorders
Overflow incontinence
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.49 VOMITING. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Acute vomiting. Primary GI disease
Secondary, non‐GI disease
Chronic vomiting. Primary GI disease
Secondary, non‐GI disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Acute vomiting. Primary GI disease
Secondary, non‐GI disease
Chronic vomiting. Primary GI disease
Secondary, non‐GI disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
CLINICAL CLUES. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.50 VULVAL DISCHARGE. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.51 WEAKNESS, COLLAPSE AND SYNCOPE. DEFINITIONS
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS. Weakness
Collapse
Signs related to underlying disease
COMMON CAUSES
Cardiovascular disease. Acquired disease
Arrhythmia
Congenital disease
Pericardial disease
Vascular
Endocrine/metabolic
Haematological
Neurological
Orthopaedic disease
Respiratory tract disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Cardiovascular disease. Acquired disease
Congenital disease
Pericardial disease
Vascular
Endocrine/metabolic
Iatrogenic
Neurological
Other
Respiratory tract disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues
Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Auscultation
Palpation
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
1.52 WEIGHT GAIN/OBESITY. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging
Special tests
1.53 WEIGHT LOSS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Normal to increased appetite, q.v. section 1.36. Physiological
Pathological
Decreased appetite. Any condition causing anorexia,q.v.section 1.5
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Normal to increased appetite
Decreased appetite
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Faecal examination for parasites. Imaging
Special tests
SECTION 2 PHYSICAL ABNORMALITIES
2.1 ABDOMINAL ENLARGEMENT. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Abdominal wall musculature weakness
Faeces
Fat
Fluid
Haemoperitoneum
Intraluminal
Uroperitoneum
Gas
Mass(es)
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Abdominal wall musculature weakness
Fat
Fluid. Bile peritonitis
Chylous effusion
Haemoperitoneum
Septic peritonitis
Uroperitoneum
Gas. Pneumoperitoneum
Intestinal enlargement
Mass(es)
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
2.2 ABDOMINAL MASSES. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Gastrointestinal (GI)
Liver
Spleen
Uterus
UNCOMMON CAUSES. GI
Gonads
Liver
Kidney
Pancreas
Spleen
Uterus
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
2.3 ABNORMAL LUNG SOUNDS. DEFINITION. Areas of dullness
Crackles
Wheezes
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Areas of dullness. Focal
Dorsal to a line
Ventral to a line: pleural effusion
Crackles
Wheezes
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Areas of dullness. Focal
Dorsal to a line
Ventral to a line: pleural effusion,q.v.section 2.21
Crackles
Wheezes
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
2.4 ARRHYTHMIAS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Bradyarrhythmias
Tachyarrhythmias
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Bradyarrhythmias
Tachyarrhythmias
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound examination
Special tests
2.5 ASCITES. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Blood
Low‐protein transudate (hypoalbuminaemia) Hepatic disease
Protein‐losing enteropathy
Protein‐losing nephropathy
High‐protein, modified transudate (portal hypertension) Cardiac tamponade (pericardial effusion)
Hepatic disease
Right‐sided heart failure
Exudate – inflammatory. Non‐septic
Septic
Urine
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Blood
Low‐protein transudate. Hepatic disease
Protein‐losing enteropathy (PLE)
Protein‐losing nephropathy (PLN)
High‐protein, modified transudate (portal hypertension) Cardiac tamponade
Caudal vena cava (CVC) compression/obstruction
Liver disease
Non‐septic
Post‐hepatic obstruction
Exudate – inflammatory. Bile
Chyle (lymphatic obstruction or leakage)
Non‐septic
Septic
Urine
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
2.6 CYANOSIS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Central. Pulmonary disease
Neurological – depressed respiration
Peripheral. Physiological
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Central. Pulmonary disease
Cardiovascular disease
Neurological – depressed respiration
Peripheral. Arterial obstruction
Methaemoglobinaemia
Venous obstruction
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasonography
Special tests
2.7 EYE LESIONS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Cornea
Anterior chamber (aqueous humor)
Iris
Lens opacities
Vitreous
Retina
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Cornea
Anterior chamber (aqueous humor)
Iris
Lens opacities
Vitreous
Retina
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues
Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special tests
2.8 HEPATOMEGALY. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Generalised. Congestion
Infiltrative disease
Drugs
Endocrinopathy
UNCOMMON CAUSES
Generalised. Congestion
Infiltrative disease
Inflammation
Focal
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound examination
Special tests
2.9 HORNER’S SYNDROME. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. First‐order (central)
Second‐order (preganglionic)
Third‐order (postganglionic)
UNCOMMON CAUSES. First‐order (central)
Second‐order (preganglionic)
Third‐order (postganglionic)
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Special tests
2.10 HYPERTENSION. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology, serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special tests
2.11 HYPOTENSION. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology, serum biochemistry and urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special tests
2.12 HYPOTHERMIA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special tests
2.13 ICTERUS/JAUNDICE. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Prehepatic jaundice
Hepatic jaundice
Post‐hepatic jaundice
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Prehepatic jaundice
Hepatic jaundice
Post‐hepatic jaundice
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Auscultation
Palpation
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Radiography
Ultrasound
Special tests
2.14 LYMPHADENOPATHY. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and abdominal ultrasound
Special tests
2.15 MURMUR. DEFINITION
2.16 ORAL MASSES. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Benign hyperplasia
Benign tumours
Malignant neoplasia
UNCOMMON CAUSES
Benign tumours. Non‐odontogenic
Odontogenic
Malignant neoplasia
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Special tests
2.17 PAIN. DEFINITION
2.17.1 ABDOMINAL PAIN. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
Endocrine
Gastrointestinal
Pancreatic
Splenic
Urogenital
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Gastrointestinal
Hepatobiliary
Pancreatic
Peritoneal
Splenic
Toxins and drugs
Urogenital
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues
Predispositions
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
2.17.2 GENERALISED PAIN. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and abdominal ultrasound
Special tests
2.18 PALLOR. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging
Special tests
2.19 PERINEAL LESIONS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
2.20 PERIPHERAL OEDEMA. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Generalised oedema. Decreased capillary oncotic pressure (hypoalbuminaemia)
Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure
Increased vascular permeability
Localised. Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure
Increased vascular permeability
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Generalised
Decreased capillary oncotic pressure (hypoalbuminaemia)
Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure
Increased vascular permeability
Localised. Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure
Increased vascular permeability
Lymphatic obstruction (variable localization)
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging
Special tests
2.21 PLEURAL EFFUSION. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Chylothorax
Exudate. Neoplasia
Pulmonary masses
Pyothorax
Haemothorax
Modified transudate
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Chylothorax
Exudate. Neoplasia
Pyothorax
Sterile inflammation
Haemothorax
Modified transudate
Small volume
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs,q.v.section 4.3
Ultrasound examination
Special tests
2.22 PNEUMOTHORAX. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
2.23 PROSTATOMEGALY. DEFINITION
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Rectal palpation
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound examination
Special tests
2.24 PULSE ABNORMALITIES. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Hyperdynamic
Weak/absent
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Hyperdynamic
Weak/absent
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH. Hyperdynamic pulses
Weak/absent pulses
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
2.25 PYREXIA AND HYPERTHERMIA. DEFINITIONS. Hyperthermia
Pyrexia
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS. Hyperthermia
Pyrexia
COMMON CAUSES. Hyperthermia
Pyrexia
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Hyperthermia
Pyrexia
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special tests
2.26 SKIN LESIONS. DEFINITION
Primary lesions. Macules and patches
Nodules
Papules and plaques
Pustules
Scaling
Vesicles and bullae
Wheals
Secondary lesions. Crusting
Erosions and excoriations
Furunculosis
Hyperkeratosis
Lichenification
Ulcer
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Macules (and patches)
Nodules. Inflammation
Epithelial neoplasia
Round cell neoplasia
Mesenchymal neoplasia
Non‐inflammatory, non‐neoplastic
Papules and plaques. Immune‐mediated
Infection
Pustules
Scaling. Primary and inherited disorders of keratinisation
Secondary scaling
Vesicles and bullae
Wheals (urticaria)
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Macules (and patches)
Nodules. Inflammation
Epithelial neoplasia
Melanocyte neoplasia
Round cell neoplasia
Mesenchymal neoplasia
Metastatic
Non‐inflammatory, non‐neoplastic
Papules and plaques. Immune‐mediated
Infection
Metabolic
Neoplasia
Pustules
Scaling. Exfoliative dermatoses
Primary and inherited disorders of keratinisation
Secondary scaling
Vesicles and bullae
Wheals (urticaria)
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Distribution of lesions
Claw
Ear margins
Facial
Interdigital pododermatitis
Nasal depigmentation
Nasodigital hyperkeratosis
Oral lesions
Scrotal lesions
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging
Special tests
2.27 SKIN PIGMENTATION CHANGES. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Blue
Black. Hyperpigmentation/melanosis
Brown
Red/purple (blood, haemoglobin)
Yellow
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Black
Red/purple (blood, haemoglobin)
Yellow
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging
Special tests
2.28 SPLENOMEGALY. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Diffuse enlargement
Focal mass(es)
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Diffuse enlargement
Focal mass(es)
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
CLINICAL CLUES. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound examination
Special tests
2.29 STOMATITIS. DEFINITION
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS
COMMON CAUSES. Local disease
Systemic disease
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Local disease
Contact stomatitis
Systemic disease
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Special tests
2.30 STRIDOR AND STERTOR. DEFINITIONS. Stridor
Stertor
RELATED CLINICAL SIGNS. Stridor
Stertor
COMMON CAUSES. Stridor
Stertor
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Stridor
Stertor
DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH
Clinical clues. Predisposition
History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and abdominal ultrasound
Special tests. Stertor
Stridor
SECTION 3 LABORATORY ABNORMALITIES
3A BIOCHEMICAL TESTS
3.1 ACID–BASE
COMMON CAUSES. Acidosis
Alkalosis
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Acidosis
Alkalosis
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
Adjunctive tests
3.2 AMMONIA
COMMON CAUSES. Decreased
Increased
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Decreased
Increased
ARTEFACT. Increased
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.3 AMYLASE AND LIPASE
COMMON CAUSES. Marked increase
Mild increase
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Marked increase
Mild increase
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.4 AZOTAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES. Pre‐renal
Renal
Post‐renal
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Pre‐renal
Renal
Post‐renal
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.5 BILE ACIDS
CAUSES. Decreased
Marked increases
Mild increases
Secondary hepatic disease
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.6 BILIRUBIN
3.7 CALCIUM
3.7.1 HYPERCALCAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES. Marked
Mild
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Marked
Mild/moderate
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.7.2 HYPOCALCAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.8 CARDIAC BIOMARKERS
3.8.1 N‐TERMINAL PRO B‐TYPE NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE (NT‐PROBNP)
COMMON CAUSES. Marked increase
Mild increase
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Marked increase
Mild increase
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.8.2 TROPONIN I
COMMON CAUSES. Marked increase
Mild increase
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Marked increase
Mild increase
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.9 CHLORIDE
3.9.1 HYPERCHLORAEMIA. COMMON CAUSES. Increased plasma osmolality (normal corrected chloride)
Acid–base disturbance (increased corrected chloride)
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Increased plasma osmolality (normal corrected chloride)
Acid–base disturbance (increased corrected chloride)
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.9.2 HYPOCHLORAEMIA. COMMON CAUSES. Decreased plasma osmolality (normal corrected chloride)
Acid–base disturbance (decreased corrected chloride)
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Decreased plasma osmolality (normal corrected chloride)
Acid–base disturbance (decreased corrected chloride)
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.10 COBALAMIN
COMMON CAUSES. Decreased
Increased
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Decreased
ARTEFACT. Decreased
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE. Decreased
Increased
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.11 CORTISOL (BASAL)
COMMON CAUSES. Decreased
Increased
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Decreased
Increased
ARTEFACT. Decreased
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.12 CREATINE KINASE
COMMON CAUSES. Moderate to marked increase
Mild increase
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Moderate to marked increase
Mild increase
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.13 CREATININE
CAUSES. Decreased
Increased
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
3.14 C‐REACTIVE PROTEIN (CRP)
CAUSES. Marked increase
Mild increase
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.15 FOLATE
COMMON CAUSES. Decreased
Increased
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Decreased
Increased
ARTEFACT. Decreased
Increased
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.16 FRUCTOSAMINE
COMMON CAUSES. Decreased
Increased
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Decreased
Increased
ARTEFACT. Decreased
Increased
Diagnostic significance
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS. Increased fructosamine
Decreased fructosamine: to investigate possible insulinoma
3.17 GLUCOSE
3.17.1 HYPERGLYCAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES. Marked
Mild
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Marked
Mild
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.17.2 HYPOGLYCAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.18 IRON PROFILE
COMMON CAUSES. Decreased iron, TIBC saturation and ferritin
Decreased iron, but normal or increased TIBC saturation and ferritin
Increased iron and ferritin
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Decreased iron, TIBC saturation and ferritin
Increased iron and ferritin
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.19 LIPIDS. 3.19.1 HYPERLIPIDAEMIA AND HYPERCHOLESTEROLAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.19.2 HYPOCHOLESTEROLAEMIA. COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.20 LIVER ENZYMES
CAUSES
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.20.1 HEPATOCELLULAR MARKER ENZYMES. DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
3.20.1A ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE (ALT)
CAUSES
ARTEFACT
3.20.1B ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE (AST)
CAUSES
ARTEFACT
3.20.1C OTHER HEPATOCELLULAR ENZYMES
3.20.2 CHOLESTATIC MARKER ENZYMES
3.20.2A ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE (ALP OR ALKP)
CAUSES
ARTEFACT
3.20.2B GAMMA‐GLUTAMYL TRANSFERASE (GGT) CAUSES
ARTEFACT
3.21 PANCREATIC LIPASE (cPL)
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.22 PHOSPHATE
3.22.1 HYPERPHOSPHATAEMIA. COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.22.2 HYPOPHOSPHATAEMIA. COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.23 POTASSIUM
3.23.1 HYPERKALAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES. Marked
Mild
UNCOMMON CAUSES
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.23.2 HYPOKALAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.24 SODIUM
3.24.1 HYPERNATRAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.24.2 HYPONATRAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES. Increased plasma osmolality
Reduced plasma osmolality. Hypovolaemic
Normovolaemic
Hypervolaemic
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Increased plasma osmolality
Reduced plasma osmolality. Hypovolaemic
Normovolaemic
Hypervolaemic
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.25 SYMMETRIC DIMETHYLARGININE (SDMA)
COMMON CAUSES. Kidney disease
Non‐kidney causes
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Kidney disease
Non‐renal causes
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.26 THYROID HORMONE
COMMON CAUSES. Decreased TT4
Increased TT4
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Decreased TT4
Increased TT4
ARTEFACT. Decreased
Increased
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE. Decreased
Increased
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.27 TOTAL PROTEIN (ALBUMIN AND GLOBULIN)
3.27.1 HYPERPROTEINAEMIA
3.27.1A HYPERALBUMINAEMIA. CAUSES
ARTEFACT
3.27.1B HYPERGLOBULINAEMIA. COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.27.2 HYPOPROTEINAEMIA
3.27.2A HYPOALBUMINAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.27.2B HYPOGLOBULINAEMIA. COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.28 TRYPSIN‐LIKE IMMUNOREACTIVITY (TLI)
CAUSES. cTLI < 2.5 μg/l
cTLI < 5.0 but > 2.5 μg/l
cTLI > 50.0 μg/l
ARTEFACT
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.29 UREA
COMMON CAUSES. Decreased
Increased
UNCOMMON. Decreased
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS. Decreased
Increased
3B HAEMATOLOGY
3.30 RED BLOOD CELLS (RBCs)
3.30.1 ANAEMIA
COMMON CAUSES
Blood loss/haemorrhage. Bleeding disorders
Gastrointestinal blood loss
Neoplasia
Trauma
Haemolysis. Immune‐mediated disease
Mechanical fragmentation
Immune‐mediated disease
Iron deficiency
Secondary to extra‐marrow factors
UNCOMMON CAUSES
Blood loss/haemorrhage. Bleeding disorders
Blood‐sucking ectoparasites
Gastrointestinal blood loss
Neoplasia
Urinary tract bleeding
Haemolysis
Chemical or toxic injury
Immune‐mediated disease
Intracorpuscular problem
Mechanical fragmentation
Iron deficiency
Nutritional deficiencies
Anaemia with other cytopenias or pancytopenia
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.30.2 ERYTHROCYTOSIS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.31 PLATELETS
3.31.1 THROMBOCYTOPENIA
COMMON CAUSES. Decreased platelet production
Increased platelet consumption/use
Increased platelet destruction
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Decreased platelet production
Increased platelet consumption/use
Increased platelet destruction
ARTEFACTS
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.31.2 THROMBOCYTOSIS
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.32 WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBCs)
3.32.1 LEUKOCYTOSIS
COMMON CAUSES. Eosinophilia. Hypersensitivity/immune‐mediated reactions
Parasitism, e.g
Lymphocytosis
Monocytosis
Neutrophilia
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Eosinophilia
Lymphocytosis
Monocytosis
Neutrophilia
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.32.2 LEUKOPENIA
COMMON CAUSES. Eosinopenia
Lymphopenia
Neutropenia
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Eosinopenia
Lymphopenia
Neutropenia
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3.33 PANCYTOPENIA
UNCOMMON CAUSES
DIAGNOSTIC SIGNIFICANCE
ADJUNCTIVE TESTS
3C URINALYSIS
3.34 BIOCHEMICAL ANALYSIS
3.34.1 PROTEIN
3.34.2 BILIRUBIN
CAUSES
3.34.3 GLUCOSE
CAUSES
3.34.4 HAEM
CAUSES
ARTEFACT
3.34.5 KETONES
CAUSES
3.35 SEDIMENT. 3.35.1 RED BLOOD CELLS
3.35.2 WHITE BLOOD CELLS
CAUSES
3.35.3 EPITHELIAL CELLS
3.35.4 CRYSTALS
3.35.5 TUBULAR CASTS
3.35.6 WAXY CAST
3.36 URINE PROTEIN: CREATININE (UPC) RATIO
CAUSES. Pre‐renal proteinuria
Renal proteinuria
Post‐renal proteinuria
3.37 URINE SPECIFIC GRAVITY (USG)
USG > 1.030 – HYPERSTHENURIA
USG < 1.030
USG 1.008–1.012 – ISOSTHENURIA
USG < 1.008 – HYPOSTHENURIA
SECTION 4 IMAGING PATTERNS
4.1 ABDOMEN. 4.1.1 RADIOGRAPHY
4.1.1A ABDOMINAL ENLARGEMENT AND MASS(ES)
COMMON CAUSES. Cranial abdomen
Mid‐abdomen
Caudal abdomen
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Cranial abdomen
Mid‐abdomen. SI
Spleen
Caudal abdomen
4.1.1B CALCIFICATION (BONE/MINERAL DENSITY)
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
4.1.1C EXTRA‐INTESTINAL GAS. COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
4.1.1D GAS DILATION OF GI TRACT
COMMON CAUSES. Gastric
Small intestinal. Lumenal diameter < 1.5 × the height of the L5 body
Lumenal diameter > 1.5 × the height of the L5 body
Bunching with comma‐shaped gas bubbles
Large intestine
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Gastric
Small intestine. Lumenal diameter < 1.5 × the height of the L5 body
Lumenal diameter > 1.5 × the height of the L5 body
4.1.1E LOSS OF CONTRAST/PERITONEAL DETAIL/SEROSAL DETAIL. COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
4.1.1F METAL DENSITIES. COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
4.1.1G ORGAN DISPLACEMENT
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
4.1.1H ORGANOMEGALY OR CHANGE IN SHAPE
4.1.2 ULTRASOUND
4.1.2A FREE ABDOMINAL FLUID. COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
4.1.2B LYMPHADENOPATHY – MESENTERIC/INGUINAL/SUBLUMBAR
4.2 BONE
4.2.1 BONE DEFORMITIES
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
4.2.2 BONE DENSITY CHANGES
4.2.2A DECREASED BONE DENSITY (OSTEOPENIA)
CAUSES. Hypovitaminosis D (rickets)
Mucopolysaccharidosis
Renal hyperparathyroidism
4.2.2B INCREASED BONE DENSITY
CAUSES. Calvarial hyperostosis
Craniomandibular osteopathy, Figure 4.2.1
Osteopetrosis
Panosteitis
4.2.3 BONE LUCENCIES AND PROLIFERATIVE LESIONS
CAUSES. Avascular necrosis of the femoral head (Legg‐Calve‐Perthes‐disease)
Bone cysts
Bone tumours (primary or metastatic)
Hypertrophic osteopathy (HO) (Figure 4.1.1c)
Metaphyseal osteopathy
Multiple myeloma
Osteomyelitis
4.3 THORAX
4.3.1 ALVEOLAR PATTERN
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
4.3.2 BRONCHIAL PATTERN
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
4.3.3 CHANGES IN CARDIAC OUTLINE AND PULMONARY VASCULATURE
COMMON CAUSES. Cardiomegaly
Microcardia
Pulmonary venous enlargement
UNCOMMON CAUSES. Aortic enlargement
Cardiomegaly
Microcardia
Pulmonary vessels
4.3.4 INTERSTITIAL PATTERN
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
4.3.5 LOSS OF DETAIL
COMMON CAUSES
UNCOMMON CAUSES
SECTION 5 ORGAN SYSTEMS
5.1 ALIMENTARY SYSTEM. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Malabsorption
Protein‐losing enteropathy (PLE)
Diagnostic Methods. History
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Plain radiographs
Contrast radiographs
Ultrasound examination
Empirical treatment
Special investigative techniques
5.1.1 OROPHARYNX
Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods. History
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Special investigative techniques
5.1.1A CRANIOMANDIBULAR OSTEOPATHY. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition, Historical clues
Clinical examination, Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special investigations
Treatment
Prognosis
5.1.1B CRICOPHARYNEAL ACHALASIA. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition and historical clues
Clinical examination/laboratory findings
Imaging
Special investigations
Treatment
Prognosis
5.1.1C MASTICATORY MYOSITIS. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition, Historical clues
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Skull radiographs
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.1.1D ORAL NEOPLASIA
Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition, Historical clues, Clinical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging, Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
Odontogenic fibroma (epulides)
Papilloma
Fibrosarcoma
Squamous cell carcinoma
Osteosarcoma, malignant melanoma
5.1.1E STOMATITIS. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition, Historical clues, Clinical examination, Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.1.2 SALIVARY GLANDS
Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic approach
History, Clinical examination, Laboratory findings, Imaging
Special investigative techniques
5.1.2A HYPERSIALOSIS/SALIVARY GLAND INFARCTION/SIALOADENITIS. Aetiology
Hypersialosis
Salivary gland infarction
Sialoadenitis
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.1.3 OESOPHAGUS. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic approach
Diagnostic methods. History
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Contrast radiographs
Special investigative techniques
5.1.3A FOREIGN BODY. Aetiology. Accidental ingestion
Deliberate ingestion
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Radiographs. Plain
Contrast
Special investigations
Treatment. Removal of FB
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.1.3B MEGAOESOPHAGUS (MO) Aetiology. Primary
Secondary
Myopathies
Neuropathies/junctionopathies
Toxins
Miscellaneous
Localised
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Auscultation
Palpation
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Barium swallow
Special investigations. Manometry
Oesophagoscopy
Focal myasthenia gravis (MG)
Generalised MG
Hypothyroidism
Polymyositis and polyneuropathy
Systemic lupus erythematosus
Treatment. Idiopathic megaoesophagus. No specific therapy
Myasthenia gravis
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.1.3C OESOPHAGITIS. Aetiology
Ingestion
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special investigations
Treatment. Prevent perpetuation of damage by further gastric reflux
Rest oesophagus
Treat oesophageal inflammation
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.1.3D SLIDING HIATAL HERNIA. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Clinical examination/laboratory findings
Imaging. Thoracic radiographs. Plain
Contrast
Special investigations. Oesophagoscopy
Treatment. Reduce precipitating factors
Medical management
Surgical management
Prognosis
5.1.3E STRICTURE
5.1.4 STOMACH. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic approach
Diagnostic methods. History
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Contrast radiographs
Ultrasound examination
Special investigative techniques
5.1.4A ACUTE GASTRITIS
5.1.4B CHRONIC GASTRITIS
5.1.4C GASTRIC CARCINOMA
5.1.4D GASTRIC DILATATION‐VOLVULUS (GDV)
5.1.4E DELAYED GASTRIC EMPTYING
5.1.4F GASTRIC ULCER
5.1.5 SMALL INTESTINE. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods
5.1.5.1 ACUTE SMALL INTESTINAL DISEASES. Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods. History
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Faecal examination
Imaging
Special investigative techniques
5.1.5.1A ACUTE ENTERITIS
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Faecal examination
Radiographs. Plain
Contrast
Ultrasound examination
Antibiotics
Anti‐emetics
Anti‐diarrhoeals
5.1.5.1B ACUTE HAEMORRHAGIC DIARRHOEA SYNDROME (AHDS)/HAEMORRHAGIC GASTROENTERITIS (HGE)
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Faecal parasitology
5.1.5.1C BACTERIAL ENTERITIS
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Faecal culture
Faecal parasitology
5.1.5.1D PARVOVIROSIS
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Faecal examination
Radiographs. Plain and contrast
Ultrasound
5.1.5.1E SMALL INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Radiographs. Plain
Contrast
Ultrasound examination
5.1.5.2 CHRONIC SMALL INTESTINAL DISEASES. Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods. History
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Faecal examination
Imaging
Special investigative techniques
5.1.5.2A ALIMENTARY LYMPHOMA (AL)
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Radiographs
Ultrasound examination
5.1.5.2B ANTIBIOTIC‐RESPONSIVE DIARRHOEA (ARD)
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Faecal examination
Radiographs
Ultrasound examination
Diet
Probiotics
Faecal microbiota transplantation
Vitamins
5.1.5.2C CHRONIC INFLAMMATORY ENTEROPATHY (CIE)
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Faecal examination
Radiographs. Plain
Contrast
Ultrasound
Antibiotics
Metronidazole
Oxytetracycline
Diet
Faecal microbiota transplantation
Immunosuppression. Prednisolone
Azathioprine
Chlorambucil
Ciclosporin (Cyclosporin)
Probiotics
Vitamin supplements
5.1.5.2D DIETARY SENSITIVITY
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
5.1.5.2E INTESTINAL PARASITISM
Cestodes (Tapeworms)
Nematodes (Helminths) Ascarids (Roundworms)
Hookworms
Spiruroidea
Threadworms
Whipworms
Trematodes (flukes/flatworms) Alaria alata
Heterobilharzia americanum
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Faecal examination
Radiographs and ultrasound
5.1.5.2F INTESTINAL PROTOZOAL INFECTIONS
5.1.5.2G LYMPHANGIECTASIA
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Radiographs
Ultrasound examination
5.1.6 LARGE INTESTINE. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods. History
Clinical examination
Rectal examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigative techniques
5.1.6A ACUTE COLITIS
5.1.6B CHRONIC COLITIS
5.1.6C CONSTIPATION
5.1.6D GRANULOMATOUS (HISTIOCYTIC ULCERATIVE) COLITIS
5.1.6E LARGE INTESTINAL NEOPLASIA
5.1.7 PANCREAS. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Methods. History
Clinical examination
Laboratory findings
Serum amylase, lipase and DGGR lipase
Serum trypsin‐like immunoreactivity (cTLI)
Serum pancreatic lipase (cPL)
Imaging. Radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigative techniques
5.1.7A ACUTE PANCREATITIS
5.1.7B CHRONIC PANCREATITIS
5.1.7C EXOCRINE PANCREATIC INSUFFICIENCY (EPI)
5.2 CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods. History
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Cardiac examination. Auscultation
Laboratory findings
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Special investigative techniques
5.2.1 ACQUIRED CARDIAC DISEASES
5.2.1A ARRHYTHMOGENIC RIGHT VENTRICULAR CARDIOMYOPATHY (ARVC)
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
Electrocardiography
ECG Holter monitor
5.2.1B DILATED CARDIOMYOPATHY (DCM)
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
BP
Electrocardiography
ECG Holter monitor
5.2.1C HEARTWORM DISEASE/DIROFILARIASIS
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Thoracic radiographs
Echocardiography
5.2.1D MYXOMATOUS MITRAL VALVE DISEASE
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
5.2.2 CONGENITAL CARDIAC DISEASES
5.2.2A AORTIC STENOSIS
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
Cardiac catheterisation
Electrocardiography
5.2.2B MITRAL VALVE DYSPLASIA
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
Electrocardiography
5.2.2C PATENT DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
Cardiac catheterisation and angiography
Electrocardiography
5.2.2D PULMONIC STENOSIS
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
Cardiac catheterisation
Electrocardiography
5.2.2E TETRALOGY OF FALLOT
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
Bubble study
Electrocardiography
5.2.2 FTRICUSPID DYSPLASIA
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
Electrocardiography
5.2.2G VENTRICULAR SEPTAL DEFECT
Plain radiographs
Electrocardiography
5.2.3 CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE (CHF) Aetiology
Treatment. If possible, treat the underlying cause
Acute CHF treatment
Chronic CHF treatment
Monitoring. Acute CHF
Chronic CHF
5.2.3A LEFT‐SIDED CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
BP
ECG
5.2.3B RIGHT‐SIDED CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
5.2.4 ARRHYTHMIAS
SINUS RHYTHMS
SINUS ARRHYTHMIA
5.2.4.1 BRADYARRHYTHMIAS
5.2.4.1A ATRIAL STANDSTILL
5.2.4.1B ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) BLOCK
5.2.4.1C SINUS BRADYCARDIA
5.2.4.1D SINUS ARREST
5.2.4.1E SICK SINUS SYNDROME
5.2.4.2 TACHYARRHYTHMIAS
5.2.4.2A SINUS TACHYCARDIA
5.2.4.2B SUPRAVENTRICULAR TACHYARRHYTHMIAS
5.2.4.2C VENTRICULAR TACHYARRHYTHMIAS
Single ventricular premature complexes
Accelerated idioventricular rhythm
Couplets/triplets
Ventricular fibrillation
Ventricular tachycardia
5.2.5 PERICARDIAL DISEASES. 5.2.5A PERICARDIAL EFFUSION
Common causes
Uncommon causes
Idiopathic pericardial effusion
Left atrial rupture
Neoplasia
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
Electrocardiography
5.2.5B PERITONEAL PERICARDIAL DIAPHRAGMATIC HERNIA (PPDH)
Plain radiographs
Echocardiography
Barium swallow
5.3 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM. Problems
Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods. History, Physical examination, Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigative techniques
5.3.1 DIABETES INSIPIDUS (DI)
Central DI (CDI)
Causes
Nephrogenic DI (NDI)
Causes
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Thoracic and abdominal radiographs
Water deprivation test
Absolute water deprivation test
Modified water deprivation test
Protocol for water deprivation test (absolute or end of modified)
Interpretation
ADH response test
Therapeutic trial with desmopressin
CDI or partial NDI
NDI
5.3.2 DIABETES MELLITUS (DM)
Causes of IDDM
Causes of NIDDM
Early
Late
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Arterial blood gas analysis
Glycosylated serum proteins
Serum insulin concentrations
cPL
cTLI
Other investigations
Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
Non‐ketotic diabetic. Stabilisation period
Fructosamine
Glycated haemoglobin
5.3.3 GROWTH HORMONE DISORDERS
5.3.3A ACROMEGALY (HYPERSOMATOTROPISM)
Common causes
Uncommon causes
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.3.3B PITUITARY DWARFISM
5.3.4 ADRENAL GLAND DISORDERS
5.3.4A HYPERADRENOCORTICISM (HAC)
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Thoracic radiographs
Abdominal radiographs
Ultrasonography. Adrenals
Liver
Hypothalamo‐pituitary‐adrenal test protocols. Basal cortisol
ACTH stimulation test
Low dose dexamethasone suppression test (LDDS)
High‐dose dexamethasone suppression test (HDDS)
High‐high dose dexamethasone suppression test (HHDDS)
Plasma endogenous ACTH concentration
Urine cortisol:creatinine ratio (UCCR)
Imaging. CT/MRI
Medical. Trilostane
Mitotane (o,p′‐DDD)
Pituitary irradiation
Surgical. Hypophysectomy
Bilateral adrenalectomy for PDH
Unilateral adrenalectomy for adrenal‐dependent HAC
5.3.4B HYPOADRENOCORTICISM (ADDISON’S DISEASE)
Primary
Secondary (rare)
Initial signs
Crisis
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Thoracic radiography
Abdominal radiography
Ultrasonography
Blood pressure
Arterial blood gas analysis
ECG
Hormone assays. ACTH stimulation test
Aldosterone assay
Endogenous ACTH
Acute crisis
Fluid therapy
Glucocorticoid therapy
Mineralocorticoid therapy
Management of hyperkalaemia
Maintenance therapy. Mineralocorticoids
Glucocorticoids
Salt (NaCl)
Secondary hypoadrenocorticism
5.3.5 HYPOTHYROIDISM
Dermatological
Cardiovascular
Neurological
Ocular
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Hormone assays. Basal thyroid hormone concentrations
Endogenous canine thyroid‐stimulating hormone (cTSH)
TSH response/stimulation test
TRH response test
Other tests. Antibodies
Thyroid biopsy
L‐thyroxine
Response to treatment
5.3.6 INSULINOMA
Radiographs
Ultrasound
Acute crisis
Medical
Surgical excision
5.3.7 PARATHYROID DISEASES
5.3.7A PRIMARY HYPERPARATHYROIDISM (PHPT)
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
5.3.7B HYPOPARATHYROIDISM
Causes
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
PTH assay
During tetany
Maintenance
5.4 HAEMOPOIETIC SYSTEM. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods
Special investigative techniques
5.4.1 ANAEMIA OF CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE (CKD)
Haematology
Serum biochemistry, q.v.section 5.12.1
Urinalysis
Radiography
Blood pressure assessment
ACTH stimulation test
PTH concentration
Serum erythropoietin (EPO) concentration
Iron profile
Gastrointestinal and other blood loss
Blood transfusion
Recombinant human erythropoietin
5.4.2 IMMUNE‐MEDIATED HAEMOLYTIC ANAEMIA (IMHA)
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Immunosuppressive therapy
Supportive therapy
Blood transfusion
Alternatives for refractory cases
5.4.3 IRON‐DEFICIENCY ANAEMIA
5.4.4 LYMPHOID LEUKAEMIA
Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia (ALL)
Chronic lymphocytic leukaemia (CLL)
Intermediate‐grade leukaemia
ALL
CLL
5.4.5 OTHER HAEMOPOIETIC NEOPLASMS
Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML)
Chronic myeloid/granulocytic leukaemia (CML/CGL)
Chronic eosinophilic leukaemia
Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS)
5.4.6 LEUKOPENIA
5.4.7 THROMBOSIS
5.5 HAEMOSTATIC SYSTEM
Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods
Special investigative techniques
Buccal mucosal bleeding time (BMBT)
Platelet number and morphology
Platelet function
Platelet aggregation tests
von Willebrand factor (vWF) antigen
Activated clotting time (ACT)
Coagulation profile
Activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT)
One‐stage prothrombin time (OSPT/PT)
Whole blood clotting time
Antithrombin (AT) (formerly known as antithrombin III)
D‐dimer
Fibrin degradation products (FDPs)
Fibrinogen
Thrombin clot time (TCT)
Viscoelastic testing with thromboelastography (TEG) or rotational thromboelastometry (ROTEM)
5.5.1 ANTICOAGULANT RODENTICIDE POISONING
Anticoagulant rodenticides
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Coagulation profile
Abdominal radiographs
Thoracic radiographs
Ultrasonography
Vitamin K
Transfusion therapy
Management of toxic incident
Symptomatic therapy
5.5.2 DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR COAGULATION (DIC)
Acute
Chronic
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Coagulation screen
5.5.3 FACTOR VIII DEFICIENCY (HAEMOPHILIA A)
Severe disease
Moderate disease
Haematology
Coagulation profile
Thoracic and abdominal radiographs and ultrasound
Transfusion
5.5.4 HYPERFIBRINOLYSIS
5.5.5 IMMUNE‐MEDIATED THROMBOCYTOPENIA (IMTP)
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
5.5.6 VON WILLEBRAND DISEASE
Excessive bleeding from mucosal surfaces
Excessive bleeding after surgery or trauma
Coagulation screen
5.5.7 VASCULITIS
Dermatological examination
Ophthalmic examination
Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
5.6 HEPATOBILIARY SYSTEM. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods. History. Clinical signs
Age
Specific clinical signs
Non‐specific clinical signs
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigative techniques
Treatments
5.6.1 CHRONIC HEPATITIS (CH)/CIRRHOSIS
Ultrasound
Control HE
Immunosuppression
Manage ascites
Non‐specific
5.6.2 CHOLANGITIS/CHOLANGIOHEPATITIS
5.6.3 CHOLECYSTITIS
5.6.4 CONGENITAL PORTO‐SYSTEMIC SHUNT (PSS)
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Radiography
Contrast radiography
Ultrasound
5.6.5 COPPER‐ASSOCIATED CHRONIC HEPATITIS
5.6.6 EXTRA‐HEPATIC BILE DUCT OBSTRUCTION (EHBDO)
Common causes
Uncommon causes
Radiograph
Ultrasound
5.6.7 GALL BLADDER MUCOCOELE
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Radiographs
Ultrasound
5.6.8 HEPATIC NEOPLASIA
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Radiography
Ultrasound
5.6.9 INFECTIOUS CANINE HEPATITIS
Differential diagnoses
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
5.6.10 NODULAR HYPERPLASIA
Radiographs
Ultrasound
5.6.11 PORTAL VEIN HYPOPLASIA (PVH)
5.6.11A MICROVASCULAR DYSPLASIA (MVD)
Radiographs
Portovenogram or CT angiography
Ultrasound
5.6.11B NON‐CIRRHOTIC PORTAL HYPERTENSION/JUVENILE HEPATIC FIBROSIS
5.6.12 STEROID HEPATOPATHY
Causes
5.6.13 VACUOLAR/REACTIVE HEPATOPATHY
5.7 IMMUNE SYSTEM
Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic approach
Diagnostic methods. History
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigative techniques
5.7.1 (AUTO)IMMUNE‐MEDIATED DISORDERS
5.7.1.1 IMMUNE‐MEDIATED POLYARTHRITIS (IMPA) Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.7.1.2 IMMUNODEFICIENCY. Aetiology
5.7.1.2A CANINE LEUKOCYTE ADHESION DEFICIENCY (CLAD)
5.7.1.2B CYCLIC HAEMATOPOIESIS (CYCLIC NEUTROPENIA) Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special investigations
Treatment
Prognosis
5.7.1.2C HEREDITARY SELECTIVE COBALAMIN MALABSORPTION (IMERSLUND‐GRÄSBECK SYNDROME)
Major signs
Minor signs
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Biochemistry
Imaging
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.7.1.2D IMMUNOGLOBULIN DEFICIENCY
Major signs
Minor signs
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special investigations
Treatment
Prognosis
5.7.1.2E TRAPPED NEUTROPHIL SYNDROME. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Predisposition
Historical clues
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special investigations
Treatment
Prognosis
5.7.1.3 LYMPHADENITIS. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.7.1.4 SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS (SLE) Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
5.7.2 NEOPLASIA OF IMMUNE CELLS. 5.7.2.1 LYMPHOMA. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.7.2.2 MAST CELL TUMOUR (MCT) Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.7.2.3 MULTIPLE MYELOMA. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.7.2.4 THYMOMA. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.8 NEUROLOGICAL SYSTEM. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods. History
Physical examination
Modified Glasgow Coma Scale
Laboratory findings. Haematology and biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigative techniques
5.8.1 CEREBROVASCULAR DISEASE. Aetiology
Major signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.8.2 CORTICOSTEROID‐RESPONSIVE TREMOR SYNDROME. Aetiology
Major signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.8.3 HYDROCEPHALUS. Aetiology
Major signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
5.8.4 IDIOPATHIC EPILEPSY. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.8.5 IDIOPATHIC HEAD TREMOR. Aetiology
Major signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Prognosis
5.8.6 IDIOPATHIC VESTIBULAR DISEASE. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Prognosis
5.8.7 INFECTIOUS DISEASES AFFECTING THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations, treatment, monitoring and prognosis
5.8.8 MOVEMENT DISORDERS. Aetiology
Major signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Prognosis
5.8.9 MENINGOENCEPHALITIS OF UNKNOWN ORIGIN (MUO) Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.8.10 MYASTHENIA GRAVIS (MG) Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment, q.v. section 5.1.3B
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.8.11 NEOPLASIA OF THE NEUROLOGICAL SYSTEM. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Ophthalmic examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.8.12 POLYRADICULONEURITIS. Aetiology
Major signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Neurological examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Prognosis
5.8.13 STEROID‐RESPONSIVE MENINGITIS‐ARTERITIS (SRMA) Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology and biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs and ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.9 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods. History
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special investigative techniques
5.9.1 MAMMARY GLAND DISEASE
5.9.1A MASTITIS. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Radiography
Ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.9.1B MAMMARY NEOPLASIA. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Radiography
Ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.9.2 OVARIAN REMNANT SYNDROME. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Prognosis
5.9.3 PROSTATIC DISEASE. Aetiology
Conditions
Major signs
Minor signs
Predisposition
Potential sequelae
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Contrast radiographs
Ultrasound
Special tests
Treatment. BPH
Squamous metaplasia
Prostatitis
Prostatic cyst
Neoplasia
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.9.4 PSEUDOCYESIS (FALSE PREGNANCY) Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Predisposition
Historical clues
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special tests
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.9.5 PYOMETRA. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Predisposition
Potential sequelae
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiography
Ultrasound
Special tests
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.9.6 TESTICULAR NEOPLASIA. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology:
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.9.7 VAGINITIS. Aetiology
Major signs
Minor signs
Potential sequelae
Predisposition
Historical clues
Physical examination
Laboratory findings
Imaging
Special investigations
Treatment
Monitoring
Prognosis
5.10 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods. History. Age
Breed‐associated disease
Environment
General details
Onset of signs
Clinical signs
Clinical examination. Visual inspection
Physical examination
Respiratory examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Imaging. Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
Special investigative techniques
5.10.1 NASAL DISORDERS
5.10.1A CHRONIC IDIOPATHIC RHINITIS
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
5.10.1B SINONASAL ASPERGILLOSIS (FUNGAL RHINITIS)
Haematology and serum biochemistry
5.10.2 UPPER‐AIRWAY DISORDERS
5.10.2A BRACHYCEPHALIC OBSTRUCTIVE AIRWAY SYNDROME (BOAS)
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
5.10.2B INFECTIOUS TRACHEOBRONCHITIS
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
5.10.2C LARYNGEAL PARALYSIS
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.10.2D TRACHEAL COLLAPSE
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
5.10.2E TRACHEOBRONCHIAL FOREIGN BODY
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
5.10.3 LOWER‐AIRWAY DISORDERS
5.10.3A CHRONIC BRONCHITIS
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
5.10.3B EOSINOPHILIC BRONCHOPNEUMOPATHY
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
5.10.3C LUNGWORM (ANGIOSTRONGLYLUS VASORUM)
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
5.10.4 PULMONARY PARENCHYMAL DISEASE
5.10.4A PNEUMONIA
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.10.4B NON‐CARDIOGENIC PULMONARY OEDEMA
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.10.4C PULMONARY FIBROSIS
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.10.4D PULMONARY NEOPLASIA
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
5.10.5 PLEURAL SPACE DISEASE
5.10.5A IDIOPATHIC CHYLOTHORAX
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.10.5B PNEUMOTHORAX
Haematology and serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.10.5C PYOTHORAX
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.11 SYSTEMIC INFECTIONS
Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods
History
Physical examination
Laboratory findings. Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Imaging. Plain radiographs/CT
Ultrasound
Special investigative techniques
Specific Conditions
5.11.1 ANAPLASMOSIS
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
5.11.2 BABESIOSIS
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
5.11.3 BORRELIOSIS (LYME DISEASE)
Haematology and biochemistry
Urinalysis
5.11.4 BRUCELLOSIS
Haematology and biochemistry
Urinalysis
NB potential zoonosis, contact laboratory before sending samples
5.11.5 DISTEMPER
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
5.11.6 EHRLICHIOSIS
Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
5.11.7 HEPATOZOONOSIS
5.11.8 LEISHMANIOSIS
Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
5.11.9 LEPTOSPIROSIS
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
5.11.10 NEOSPOROSIS
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
5.11.11 RABIES
5.11.12 TOXOPLASMOSIS
Haematology
Biochemistry
5.12 URINARY SYSTEM
5.12.1 KIDNEY DISEASES
Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods
5.12.1A ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.12.1B CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.12.1C GLOMERULAR DISORDERS
Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.12.1D PYELONEPHRITIS
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.12.1E RENAL TUBULAR DISORDERS
Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
Plain radiographs and ultrasound
5.12.2 LOWER URINARY TRACT DISEASES. Problems. Presenting complaints
Physical abnormalities
Laboratory abnormalities
Diagnostic Approach
Diagnostic Methods
Haematology
Serum biochemistry
Urinalysis
Abdominal radiography
Thoracic radiography
Contrast radiography
Ultrasonography
5.12.2A FUNCTIONAL DISORDERS OF URINATION
Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
Plain radiographs and ultrasound
5.12.2B NEOPLASIA OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
Haematology and biochemistry
Urinalysis
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
5.12.2C URETHRITIS
Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
Plain radiographs and ultrasound
5.12.2D URINARY TRACT INFECTION (UTI)
Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
Plain radiographs and ultrasound
5.12.2E UROLITHIASIS
Upper urinary tract uroliths
Lower urinary tract uroliths
Haematology
Biochemistry
Urinalysis
Plain radiographs
Ultrasound
ABBREVIATIONS
INDEX
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Отрывок из книги
Fourth Edition
Victoria L. Black,
.....
Jessie Rose Payne,
BVetMed, MVetMed, PhD, DipACVIM (Cardiology), MRCVS
.....