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Kirk N. Gelatt. Essentials of Veterinary Ophthalmology
Table of Contents
List of Tables
List of Illustrations
Guide
Pages
Essentials of Veterinary Ophthalmology
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
1 Development and Morphology of the Eye and Adnexa
Section I: Development of the Eye and Adnexa
Gastrulation and Neurulation
Formation of the Optic Vesicle and Optic Cup
Lens Formation
Vascular Development
Development of the Cornea and Anterior Chamber
Development of the Iris, Ciliary Body, and Iridocorneal Angle
Retina and Optic Nerve Development
Sclera, Choroid, and Tapetum
Vitreous
Optic Nerve
Eyelids
Extraocular Muscles
Section II: Morphology of the Eye and Adnexa. Introduction
Orbit
Orbital Fascia
Extraocular Muscles and Orbital Fat
Eyelids
Conjunctiva
Nictitating Membrane
Lacrimal and Nasolacrimal System
Globe. Components
Size, Shape, and Topography
Cornea
Corneal Epithelium
Stroma
Descemet's Membrane
Corneal Endothelium
Sclera
Uvea
Iris
Ciliary Body
Ciliary Body Musculature
Ciliary Body Vasculature
Iridocorneal Angle
Uveoscleral Outflow
Innervation
Choroid
Lens
Lens Capsule
Anterior Epithelium
Lens Fibers
Zonular Attachment
Vitreous
Retina
Retinal Pigment Epithelium
Neurosensory Retina
Retinal Vasculature
Optic Nerve
Vasculature of the Eye and Orbit
2 Ophthalmic Physiology and Vision
Section I: Physiology of the Eye
Anterior Eye Structures. Eyelids
Eyelids in the Dog
Eyelids in the Cat
Other Species. Horse
Cattle, Sheep, and Pigs
Birds and Reptiles
Tear Production and Drainage
Cornea
Transparency
Metabolism
Biomechanics
Sensitivity and Innervation
Iris and Pupil
Nutrition of Intraocular Tissues
Ocular Circulation
Ocular Blood Flow
Anterior Uveal Blood Flow
Choroidal Blood Flow
Retinal Blood Flow
Blood Flow of the Optic Nerve Head
Ocular Barriers
Blood–Aqueous Barrier
Blood–Retinal Barrier
Aqueous Humor and Intraocular Pressure
Aqueous Humor Formation
Aqueous Humor Composition
Aqueous Humor Regulation
Aqueous Humor Outflow
Structural and Biomechanical Attributes
Fluid Dynamics
Regulation of Outflow
Methods to Measure Aqueous Dynamics
Ocular Rigidity
Intraocular Pressure
Lens
Vitreous. Vitreal Structure and Aging
Vitreous Functions
Ocular Mobility
Oculocardiac Reflex
Section II: Optics and Physiology of Vision. Introduction
Visual Optics. Physical Optics. Light
Photometry
Transmission and Reflection
Geometric Optics. Refraction
Vergence
Visual Optics. Refractive Structures of the Eye. Precorneal Tear Film and Cornea
Lens
Vitreous
Accommodation
Pupil
Abnormal Refractive States and Optical Errors. Emmetropia and Ametropia
Aphakic Eyes and Intraocular Lenses
Astigmatism
Static Accommodation
Spherical and Chromatic Aberrations. Spherical Aberrations
Emmetropia and Accommodation Underwater
Visual Processing: Photoreceptors to Cortex. Retina
Photoreceptors
Horizontal and Bipolar Cells
Other INL Cells
Ganglion Cells
Optic Nerve
Optic Chiasm and Optic Tract
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus
Primary Visual Cortex
Section III: Vision
Scotopic and Photopic Vision
Scotopic Vision. Rods and Rod Pathways
Tapetum
Globe Size
Dark Adaptation
Photopic Vision. Light Adaptation
Pupil
Flicker Detection
Motion Perception
Visual Fields, Binocular Vision, and Depth Perception
Visual Fields
Stereopsis
Geometry and Retinal Disparity
Processing Retinal Disparity
Stereoacuity
Color Vision
Visual Acuity
3 Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics
Section I: Ocular Drug Delivery
Barriers to Ocular Drug Delivery
Corneal Barriers
Conjunctiva and Sclera Membrane Barriers
Blood–Ocular Barriers
Topical Administration
Ophthalmic Solutions and Suspensions
Drug Disposition After Eye Drop Application
Nasolacrimal Drainage and Tear Washout
Factors Influencing the Drainage Rate
Penetration Across the Cornea
Factors Influencing Corneal Absorption
Penetration via the Conjunctiva/Scleral Route
Systemic Absorption. Mechanisms and Consequences
Systemic Drug Delivery Through Ocular Route
Topical Drug Delivery to the Posterior Eye Segment
Inside the Globe. Drug Distribution
Drug Elimination
Drug Binding
Drug Metabolism
Drug Delivery Kinetics and Ocular Bioavailability
Improvement of Ocular Bioavailability
Improvement of Precorneal Retention. Continuous Infusion of Topical Drugs
Ophthalmic Ointments
Mucoadhesive and Viscosity‐Enhancing Polymers
Colloidal Carriers
Solid Polymeric Devices
Improvement of Corneal Penetration
Ophthalmic Prodrugs
Periocular Administration
Subconjunctival Injection
Sub‐Tenon's Injection
Retrobulbar and Peribulbar Injections
Intraocular Administration. Intracameral and Intravitreal Injections
Sustained Drug Delivery to Intraocular Tissues
Intraocular Implants
Systemic Administration
Other Methods of Ocular Drug Delivery
Antibacterial, Antifungal, and Antiviral Agents. General Principles of Antibacterial Therapy
Box 3.1 Classification of Antibiotics Used in Veterinary Ophthalmology
Drugs That Inhibit Bacterial Cell Wall Synthesis
Penicillins
Extended‐Spectrum Penicillins
Antipseudomonal Penicillins
Cephalosporins
First‐Generation Cephalosporins
Second‐Generation Cephalosporins
Third‐Generation Cephalosporins
Fourth‐Generation Cephalosporins
Bacitracin
Vancomycin
Drugs That Disrupt the Bacterial Cell Membrane
Gramicidin
Drugs That Affect Bacterial Protein Synthesis
Aminoglycosides
Neomycin
Gentamicin
Tobramycin
Kanamycin
Amikacin
Tetracyclines
Macrolides and Lincosamides
Azithromycin
Clindamycin
Chloramphenicol
Drugs That Alter Bacterial Folate Metabolism
Drugs That Affect Bacterial DNA Synthesis
First‐Generation Fluoroquinolones
Second‐Generation Fluoroquinolones
Third‐Generation Fluoroquinolones
Fourth‐Generation Fluoroquinolones
Antifungal Agents. General Principles of Therapy
Polyenes
Amphotericin B
Natamycin
Nystatin
Pyrimidines
Azoles
Miconazole
Triazoles
Fluconazole
Itraconazole
Voriconazole
Antiviral Agents. General Principles
Specific Antiviral Agents. Pyrimidine (Thymidine) Analogues
Pyrimidine (Cytosine) Analogue
Purine Nucleoside Analogues
Interferons
L‐Lysine
Anti‐inflammatory and Immunosuppressant Drugs
Anti‐inflammatory Agents. Corticosteroids. Mechanism of Action
Routes of Administration. Topical Ocular Administration
Subconjunctival Injection
Intravitreal Injection
Systemic Administration
Indications for Ocular Disease
Ophthalmic Corticosteroids. Prednisolone
Dexamethasone
Hydrocortisone
Fluorometholone, Rimexolone, and Loteprednol
Side Effects of Ophthalmic Corticosteroids. Effect on Ocular Infection
Effects on Corneal Wound Healing
Cataract Formation
Ocular Hypertension
Systemic Effects
Other Side Effects
Nonsteroidal Anti‐inflammatory Drugs. Mechanism of Action
Indications for Ocular Disease
Ophthalmic Nonsteroidal Anti‐inflammatory Drugs
Side Effects of Ophthalmic NSAIDs
Effects on Ocular Infection
Ocular Hypertension
Systemic NSAIDs
Immunosuppressant Drugs
Mydriatics/Cycloplegics, Anesthetics, and Tear Substitutes and Stimulators. Mydriatics/Cycloplegics
Cholinergic Antagonists
Tropicamide
Atropine
Sympathomimetics
Phenylephrine
Epinephrine
Indirect‐Acting Sympathomimetics
Local and Regional Anesthetics
Topical
Proparacaine
Tetracaine
Intracameral
Regional Injection
Intravenous
Tear Substitutes and Stimulators. Tear Substitutes
Tear Stimulators. Calcineurin Inhibitors – Cyclosporine, Tacrolimus, and Pimecrolimus
Pilocarpine
Drugs That Affect Aqueous Humor Dynamics and Intraocular Pressure
Parasympathomimetics or Cholinomimetics
Direct‐Acting Parasympathomimetics
Indirect‐Acting Parasympathomimetics
Clinical Use
Side Effects
Drugs Acting on Adrenoceptors
Epinephrine and Dipivefrin
α2‐Adrenergic Agonists
Beta‐Adrenergic Antagonists (Beta‐Blockers)
Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors
Mechanism of Action
Systemic Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors
Topical Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors
Clinical Use
Adverse Effects
Prostaglandin Analogues. Background History and Chemistry
Mechanism of Action
Clinical Pharmacology
Clinical Use
Side Effects
Osmotic Agents
Mechanism of Action
Products Available
Clinical Use
Side Effects and Contraindications
4 Eye Examination and Diagnostics
History
General Ocular Examination
Box 4.1 Diagnostic Sequence for the Basic Eye Examination
Restraint
Eyelid Akinesia
Regional Anesthesia/Analgesia
Ophthalmic Examination in Ambient Lighting
Distance Examination
Vision Assessment and Neuro‐ophthalmic Examination
Menace Response
Pupillary Light Reflex
Dazzle Reflex
Palpebral Reflex
Corneal Reflex
Vestibulo‐ocular Reflex (Oculocephalic Reflex)
Tear Tests
Close Examination of the Adnexa and Globe
Intraocular Pressure Measurement and Pupil Dilation
Anterior Segment Examination After Pupil Dilation: Lens Examination
Posterior Segment Examination
Ophthalmic Examination Techniques. Slit‐Lamp Biomicroscopy
Direct Ophthalmoscopy
Box 4.2 Advantages and Limitations of Direct Ophthalmoscopy
Indirect Ophthalmoscopy
Box 4.3 Advantages and Limitations of Indirect Ophthalmoscopy
Pan‐Retinal Ophthalmoscope
Retinoscopy
Gonioscopy
Practical Application
Ophthalmic Diagnostic Procedures. Corneal Esthesiometry
Corneal and Conjunctival Cultures and Cytology
Additional Tests
Tear Tests
Schirmer Tear Test I
Schirmer Tear Test II
Phenol Red Thread Tear Test
Endodontic Absorbent Paper Point Test
External Ophthalmic Stains
Fluorescein Dye
Jones Test (Nasolacrimal Drainage)
Nasolacrimal Flush
Seidel Test
Tear Film Breakup Time
Rose Bengal
Other Ophthalmic Dyes
Tonometry
Digital Tonometry
Indentation Tonometry
Applanation Tonometry
Rebound Tonometry
Ophthalmic Paracentesis
Aqueous Paracentesis
Vitreous Paracentesis
Ocular Imaging: Basic and Advanced Diagnostics
Basic Imaging Systems. Radiography
Selection of Appropriate Radiographic Views
Interpretation of Radiographs
Advanced Imaging Systems
Contrast Radiography for Orbital Disease
Zygomatic Sialography
Dacryocystorhinography
Cross‐sectional Imaging Techniques: Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
CT‐Guided Percutaneous Biopsy
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Pachymetry
Specular Microscopy
Scanning Laser Polarimetry
Optical Coherence Tomography
Laser Fluorophotometry and Laser Flare Cell Meters
Fluorescein Angiography
Ophthalmic Imaging by Ultrasonography
Physics and Basic Principles
Echoes
A‐Mode
B‐Mode
Examination Technique
Standard (10–12 MHz) Ultrasonographic Imaging
Anterior Segment Lesions. Neoplasia
Lens Abnormalities
Posterior Segment Lesions
Orbital Lesions
Advanced Ultrasound Imaging (20–100 MHz)
High‐Frequency Ultrasound Biomicroscopy
Color Doppler Ultrasound
Electrodiagnostic Evaluation of Vision
Flash Electroretinogram
Equipment for Recording and Light Stimulation
Photostimulator
Patient Preparation
Anesthetic Protocol
ERG Results
Ophthalmic Genetics and DNA Testing
Tests for Genetic Disease
Sample Collection
Breeding from Carriers for Recessive Disease
5 Canine Orbit: Disease and Surgery
Clinical Signs/Examination
Exophthalmia Versus Enophthalmia
Palpation of Orbital Structures
Clinical Signs
Other Clinical Signs
Ophthalmoscopy
Auscultation
Ancillary Diagnostic Tests
Diagnostic Ultrasound
Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Fine Needle Aspiration and Tissue Biopsy
Congenital Anomalies of the Orbit and Globe. Anophthalmos
Cystic Eye, Microphthalmia, and Nanophthalmia
Vascular Anomalies
Exophthalmos
Orbital Cysts
Acquired Orbital Diseases. Inflammatory Lesions: Orbital Cellulitis/Abscess
Box 5.1 Treatment of Orbital Cellulitis in the Dog
Salivary Retention Cysts and Mucoceles (Sialoceles)
Myositis
Eosinophilic Myositis/Masticatory Muscle Myositis
Extraocular Polymyositis
Restrictive Strabismus
Orbital Neoplasia
Box 5.2 Tissue Origins of Orbital Neoplasms in the Dog
Traumatic Lesions. Orbital Fractures and Hematomas
Orbital Emphysema
Traumatic Proptosis
Therapy for Traumatic Proptosis
Complications After Traumatic Proptosis
Box 5.3 Treatment Steps for Proptosed Globes
Miscellaneous Lesions. Orbital Fat Prolapse
Craniomandibular Osteopathy
Surgery of the Globe and Orbit
Enucleation
Surgical Site Preparation
Subconjunctival Enucleation Technique
Transpalpebral Enucleation Technique
Lateral Enucleation Technique
Postoperative Complications
Exenteration
Orbital Prosthesis
Evisceration and Implantation of Intrascleral (Intraocular) Prostheses
Extrascleral Prosthesis
Orbitotomy
Orbitectomy
6 Canine Eyelids: Disease and Surgery
Introduction
Structure and Function
Skin and Cilia
Eyelid Margin
Canthus
Lid Sensation and Innervation
Blood Supply and Lymphatic Drainage
Diagnostics for Eyelids
Principles of Lid Surgery. Anesthesia
Preparation of the Operative Field
Positioning
Box 6.1 Diagnostic Tests for the Eyelids
Draping
Magnification and Illumination
Surgical Instruments
Suture Material
Suturing
Hemostasis
Cryosurgery
Postoperative Care
Congenital and Presumed Heredity Structural Abnormalities. Ankyloblepharon: Physiological
Ankyloblepharon: Pathological
Eyelid Aplasia or Coloboma
Dermoids and Dysplasia Palpebrae
Distichiasis and Conjunctival Ectopic Cilia
Treatment of Distichiasis
Ectopic Cilia
Therapy
Entropion
Epidemiology
Clinical Signs
Diagnosis
Therapy
Tacking Lids or Stay Sutures
Quickert–Rathbun Procedure
Surgical Procedures
Box 6.2 Key Components of the Hotz–Celsus Procedure for Entropion in the Dog
Other Entropion Surgeries
Box 6.3 Surgical Procedures to Reduce Palpebral Fissure Size by Shortening Upper and/or Lower Eyelids
Ectropion and Oversized Palpebral Fissure (Macro‐ or Euryblepharon)
Clinical Signs
Therapy
Ectropion–Macroblepharon Correction Procedures to Shorten the Lower Lid Margin
Kühnt–Szymanowski Blaskovic's Modification (Further Modified by Fox and Smith): Procedure for Oversized Lower Lid Margin and Ectropion
Macroblepharon–Ectropion Correction, Reducing Lower and Upper Lid Length
Permanent Lateral Palpebral Fissure Reduction Plasty (Modified Roberts–Jensen Pocket Procedure)
Postoperative Treatment
Microblepharon, Blepharophimosis, or Blepharostenosis
Trichiasis
Nasal Fold Trichiasis
Removal of Nasal Folds
Trichomegaly
Redundant Skin Folds Around the Eye
Lid Trauma
Aftercare
Inflammations
Generalized Blepharitis
Bacterial Blepharitis
Mycotic Blepharitis
Parasitic Blepharitis
Leishmania Blepharitis
Immune‐Mediated Blepharitis
Chalazion
Hordeolum or Stye
Focal Blepharitis, Blepharitis Adenomatosa, Meibomianitis, and External Hordeolum
Other Eyelid Diseases
Eyelid Masses and Neoplasia
Inflammatory Masses
Eyelid Neoplasia
Therapy
Box 6.4 Blepharoplastic Procedures Reported in the Dog
Reconstructive Blepharoplasty
Other Eyelid Procedures
Temporary Tarsorrhaphy
Permanent Tarsorrhaphy
Postoperative Care and Complications After Tarsorrhaphy
7 Canine Nasolacrimal and Lacrimal Systems: Disease and Surgery
Section I: Nasolacrimal Duct System
Embryology
Anatomy
Physiology
Clinical Manifestations of Nasolacrimal Disease
Epiphora
Diagnostic Procedures
Schirmer Tear Test
Cytology and Microbial Cultures
Fluorescein Dye Passage
Nasolacrimal Flushing
Radiographic and Other Imaging Examinations
Congenital Diseases
Lacrimal Punctal Atresia
Micropunctum
Atresia of the Canaliculus, Nasolacrimal Sac, and Nasolacrimal Duct
Congenital Puncta and Canaliculi Misplacement
Developmental Disorders
Acquired Diseases
Lacerations
Dacryocystitis and Foreign Bodies
Neoplasia of the Nasolacrimal Duct
Section II: Lacrimal Secretory System: Disease and Surgery
Formation and Dynamics of Tear Components
Pathogenesis of Tear Film Disease
Causes of Aqueous Tear Deficiency
Box 7.1 Causes of KCS in the Dog
Clinical Findings in KCS
Box 7.2 Breeds at Highest Risk to KCS
Diagnosis of Aqueous Tear Deficiency
Qualitative Abnormalities
Diagnosis of Qualitative Tear Deficiencies
Treatment of Tear Film Deficiencies. Medical Treatment
Lacrimostimulants
Box 7.3 Selected Drugs for the Treatment of Canine KCS
Cholinergic Agents
Immunomodulating Agents
Tear Substitutes (Lacrimomimetics)
Antibacterials
Mucinolytic–Anticollagenase Agents
Anti‐inflammatory Therapy
Box 7.4 Tear Substitutesa
Other Considerations in Aqueous Tear Deficiency
Surgical Treatment of Chronic and/or Medical Refractory Tear Deficiencies
Parotid Duct Transposition
Complications, Sequelae, and Postoperative Considerations
Partial Tarsorrhaphy
Replacement of Prolapsed Nictitans Gland
Cysts and Neoplasms of the Lacrimal Secretory System
8 Canine Conjunctivae and Nictitating Membrane: Disease and Surgery
Conjunctiva
Functional Anatomy and Physiology
Microscopic Anatomy
Vascular Supply and Innervation
Normal Bacterial and Fungal Flora
Conjunctival Cytology
General Response to Disease
Infectious Conjunctivitis
Bacterial Conjunctivitis
Viral Conjunctivitis
Fungal Conjunctivitis
Rickettsial Conjunctivitis
Parasitic Conjunctivitis
Noninfectious Conjunctivitis. Allergic Conjunctivitis
Follicular Conjunctivitis
Environmental Irritants and Contact Hypersensitivity
Conjunctivitis Associated with Tear Deficiencies
Ligneous Conjunctivitis
Conjunctival Neoplasia
Non‐neoplastic Conjunctival Masses
Inflammatory Masses
Dermoids
Subconjunctival Fat Prolapse
Parasitic Granulomas
Cysts
Conjunctival Hemorrhages
Foreign Bodies
Orbital Disease
Anatomical Abnormalities
Medial Canthal Pocket Syndrome
Medial Aberrant Dermis (Caruncular Trichiasis)
Conjunctival Manifestations of Systemic Disease
Box 8.1 Systemic Diseases that May Cause Conjunctival Diseases
Effects of Radiation
Surgical Procedures
Laceration Repair
Surgical Repair of Conjunctival Defects
Conjunctival Autografts to the Cornea
Nictitating Membrane
Anatomy, Histology, and Function
Anomalous, Congenital, and Developmental Disorders. Bent Cartilage
Prolapse of the Gland
Surgical Repositioning
Protrusion
Neoplasia
Adenocarcinoma
Other Neoplasms
Inflammatory Conditions. Nodular Granulomatous Episclerokeratitis
Plasma Cell Infiltration (Plasmoma)
Follicular Conjunctivitis
Trauma, Reconstruction, and Foreign Bodies
Nictitating Membrane Surgery
Nictitating Membrane Flaps
9 Canine Cornea and Sclera: Diseases and Surgery
Corneal Anatomy and Pathophysiology. Corneal Anatomy
Corneal Clarity
Corneal Wound Healing
Epithelial Healing
Stromal Healing
Endothelial Healing
Repair of Full‐Thickness Corneal Laceration or Perforation
Role of Proteases in Corneal Wound Healing
Box 9.1 Phases of the Healing of Full‐Thickness Corneal Lacerations
Proteinases and Proteinase Inhibitors
Major Proteinases in the Cornea and Their Origin
Proteolytic Activity in Healthy and Diseased Corneas
Corneal Pigmentation
Corneal Edema
Corneal Vascularization
Developmental Abnormalities and Congenital Diseases. Microcornea
Megalocornea
Dermoids
Superficial Keratectomy
Congenital Corneal Opacities
Infantile Corneal Dystrophy
Corneal Opacities with Persistent Pupillary Membranes
Limbal Colobomas and Staphylomas
Inflammatory Keratopathies
Ulcerative Keratitis
Corneal Foreign Bodies
Ulcerative Keratitis: Depth of Corneal Involvement
Superficial Corneal Ulcers
Spontaneous Chronic Corneal Epithelial Defects
Diagnosis
Treatment
Box 9.2 Clinical Management of Corneal Erosions. Drugs reported to facilitate healing of corneal erosions
Recommended approach for “first‐time” patients
For refractory cases (after two or three debridements)
Stromal Corneal Ulcers
Corneal Tissue Adhesives
Conjunctival Grafts
Total (360°) Conjunctival Flap
Bridge or Bipedicle Graft
Hood (180°) Conjunctival Flap
Pedicle Conjunctival Graft
Island Conjunctival Graft
Complications
Amniotic Membranes
Descemetoceles and Corneal Perforations
Corneoscleral and Corneoconjunctival Transposition
Autogenous Lamellar Corneal Grafts
Fresh or Cryopreserved Corneal Grafts
Full‐Thickness Corneal Lacerations
Corneal Foreign Bodies
Ulcerative Keratitis: Cause of Corneal Disease
Bacterial Corneal Ulcers
Viral Keratitis
Mycotic Keratitis
Chemical‐Induced Corneal Ulcerations
Melting Ulcers (Collagenase‐ and Protease‐Associated Ulcers)
Control of Proteolytic Activity in the Treatment of Ulcerative Keratitis
Corneal Sequestrum
Nonulcerative Keratitis. Pigmentary Keratitis (Superficial Pigmentary Keratitis)
Chronic Superficial Keratitis (Pannus)
Histopathological Features of CSK
Treatment
Neurogenic Keratitis
Corneal Abscessation
Parasitic Keratitis
Superficial Punctate Keratitis
Non‐inflammatory Keratopathies. Crystalline Corneal Opacities
Box 9.3 Breeds of Dogs Reported with Corneal Dystrophies
Corneal Dystrophies
Breed‐Predisposed Corneal Dystrophy
Lipid Keratopathy
Corneal Degeneration
Noncrystalline Cornea Opacities. Corneal Endothelial Dystrophy
Florida Keratopathy
Corneoscleral Masses and Neoplasms
Corneal Epithelial Inclusion Cysts
Papillomas
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Corneal Lymphosarcoma
Other Corneal Neoplasms
Limbal Melanomas
Treatment of Limbal Melanoma
Scleral Diseases
Episcleritis
Nodular Granulomatous Episcleritis
Scleritis
Non‐necrotizing Granulomatous Scleritis
Necrotizing Granulomatous Scleritis
10 The Canine Glaucomas
Epidemiology of Primary and Secondary Glaucomas in the Dog
University of California Study
Genetics
Genetics of Pectinate Ligament Dysplasia and Ciliary Cleft Opening in the Dog
Genetics of Canine Primary Open‐Angle Glaucoma and Primary Lens Luxation
POAG and PLL in Other Canine Breeds
Classification of the Glaucomas
Cause(s) of the Glaucomas
Box 10.1 Types of Glaucoma in Dogs. Primary glaucomas
Secondary glaucomas
Congenital glaucoma
Onset and Duration
Diagnostics
Applanation Tonometry
Gonioscopy
Ophthalmoscopy
High‐Resolution Ultrasonography and Ultrasound Biomicroscopy
Other Diagnostics
Provocative Tests
Clinical and Pathological Effects of Elevated IOP
Pathology of Canine Glaucoma in Clinical Patients
Clinical Signs
Primary and Breed‐Predisposed Canine Glaucomas
Pectinate Ligament Dysplasia
Breed Predisposition
Effect of Gender
Effect of Age
Inheritance of the Canine Glaucomas
Box 10.2 Inherited and Breed Predisposition to Lens Luxation in Dogs
Clinical Stages of the Primary Glaucomas
Glaucoma in the American Cocker Spaniel
Glaucoma in the Basset Hound
Glaucoma in the Beagle
Glaucoma in the Boston Terrier
Glaucoma in the Bouvier des Flandres
Glaucoma in the Chow Chow
Glaucoma in the English Cocker Spaniel
Glaucoma in the English Springer Spaniel
Glaucoma in the Flat‐Coated Retriever
Glaucoma in the Great Dane
Glaucoma in the Petit Basset Griffon Vendéen
Glaucoma in the Shiba Inu in Japan
Glaucoma in the Toy and Miniature Poodles
Glaucoma in the Norwegian Elkhound
Glaucoma in the Samoyed
Glaucoma in the Shar‐Pei
Glaucoma in the Siberian Husky
Glaucoma in the Welsh Springer Spaniel
Other Breeds
Secondary Glaucomas
Risk Factors of the Canine Secondary Glaucomas. Epidemiology Study of North America
Box 10.3 Treatment for the Secondary Glaucomas in Dogs. Anterior uveitis:
Lens‐associated:
Intraocular neoplasms
Hyphema
Melanocytic
Aphakic/pseudophakic (angle/pupil obstruction)
Malignant
Silicone oil
Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment
Lens and the Glaucomas
Subluxated Lenses, and Anterior and Posterior Lens Luxations
Cataractous Versus “Clear” Lens
Phacomorphic Glaucoma and Intumescent Cataract
Phacolytic Glaucoma/Resorbing Hypermature Cataracts and Lens‐Induced Uveitis
Aphakic and Pseudophakic Glaucomas
Acute Postoperative Hypertension
Malignant Glaucoma (Aqueous Misdirection)
Traumatic Glaucomas
Uveitic Glaucomas
Ocular Melanosis and Melanocytic Glaucoma
Pigmentary and Cystic Glaucoma
Intraocular Neoplasms and Glaucoma
Glaucomas Secondary to Silicone Oil and Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachments
Congenital Glaucomas
Medical and Surgical Treatment
Box 10.4 IOP Control. Initial (emergency) medical control: reduce IOP to below 20 mmHg within a few hours
Short‐term control (one to three months)
Long‐term control
Target, Safe, and Diurnal IOP
Medical Therapy for IOP Control
Patient Selection for Glaucoma Surgery
Available Surgical Procedures
Preoperative Treatment
Current Strategies for Surgical Treatments
Anterior Chamber Shunts (Gonioimplants)
Surgical Procedure for Anterior Chamber Shunts
Postoperative Management
Complications of Anterior Chamber Shunts
Surgical Results
Cyclodestructive Techniques
Cyclocryothermy
Transscleral and Endoscopic Laser Photocoagulation
Treatment of End‐Stage Primary Glaucomas
11 Canine Anterior Uvea: Diseases and Surgery
Developmental Conditions
Subalbinism
Heterochromia Iridis
Iridal Changes Associated with Merling
Persistent Pupillary Membranes
Peter's Anomaly
Aniridia and Iris Hypoplasia
Other Congenital Pupillary Abnormalities
Miscellaneous Congenital Abnormalities
Degenerative Iridal Changes. Senile Iris Atrophy
Secondary Iris Atrophy
Uveal Cyst
Uveal Cyst Removal
Uveal Inflammation
Etiopathogenesis of Uveitis
General Uveal Inflammatory Responses
Box 11.1 Diseases Proved or Suspected of Causing Uveitis in the Dog
Chemical Mediators of Inflammation
Clinical Manifestations and Diagnosis
Systemic Evaluation
Therapy for Anterior Uveitis
Anti‐inflammatory Agents
Immunosuppressive Agents
Antimicrobial Agents
Mydriatics/Cycloplegics
Uveal Manifestations of Selected Diseases
Lens‐Induced Uveitis
Uveodermatologic Syndrome
Mycoses‐Associated Uveitis
Parasitic Diseases. Ocular Nematodiasis
Ophthalmomyiasis
Protozoal Diseases. Leishmaniasis
Toxoplasmosis
Other Protozoal Diseases
Rickettsial Diseases. Ehrlichiosis
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
Viral Diseases. Infectious Canine Hepatitis
Bacterial Disease
Algal Disease
Miscellaneous. Hyperlipidemia
Pigmentary and Cystic Glaucoma (Pigmentary Uveitis)
Solid Intraocular Xanthogranuloma in Miniature Schnauzer Dogs
Hyperviscosity Syndrome
Sulfonamide Hypersensitivity
Uveal Trauma
Emergency Management of Acute Ocular Trauma
Ancillary Diagnostic Procedures
Treatment of Blunt Injuries
Box 11.2 Emergency Management of Acute Ocular Trauma
Treatment of Penetrating Injuries
Traumatic Uveitis with Lens Rupture
Intraocular Foreign Bodies
Hyphema
Box 11.3 Causes of Hyphema in the Dog
Non‐neoplastic Iridal Proliferations. Ocular Melanosis (Pigmentary Glaucoma)
Iris Freckles and Nevi
Anterior Uveal Tumors
Primary Neoplasms. Melanocytic Neoplasms
Iridociliary Epithelial Tumors
Medulloepitheliomas
Miscellaneous Primary Neoplasms
Secondary Neoplasms
Uveal Surgery
Mass Removal Procedures. Sector Iridectomy
Laser Photocoagulation of Iris Melanoma
Sphincterotomy, Synechiotomy, and Pupil Iridotomy
Iridotomy
12 Canine Cataracts, Lens Luxations, and Surgery
Section I: Cataracts – Clinical Findings
Normal Findings by Age
Congenital Lens Abnormalities
Aphakia
Microphakia and Spherophakia
Lens Coloboma
Lenticonus/Lentiglobus
Embryonic Vascular Abnormalities
Congenital Lens Luxation
Congenital Cataract
Primary Congenital Cataract
Clinical and Morphological Features of Primary Congenital Cataracts in Small Breeds (<10 kg)
Clinical and Morphological Features of Primary Congenital Cataracts in Medium Breeds (10–20 kg)
Clinical and Morphological Features of Primary Congenital Cataracts in Large Breeds (>20 kg)
Secondary Congenital Cataract
Acquired Lens Abnormalities
Cataracts
Classification of Canine Cataracts
Detailed Description of Acquired Cataracts
Acquired Primary Cataracts
Developmental Cataracts
Clinical and Morphological Features of Developmental Cataracts in Small Breeds (<10 kg)
Clinical and Morphological Features of Developmental Cataracts in Medium Breeds (10–20 kg)
Clinical and Morphological Features of Developmental Cataracts in Large Breeds (>20 kg)
Mode of Inheritance and Affected Genes in Hereditary Cataracts
Breeding Strategies and Genetic Tests Available for HC
Age‐Related Cataracts
Acquired Secondary Cataracts. Cataracts Associated with Medications and Other Toxic Substances
Box 12.1 Drugs Associated with Cataracts in Dogs
Cataracts Associated with External Agents
Cataracts Associated with Other Ocular Diseases
Cataracts Associated Systemic Ion Disturbances
Cataracts Associated with Metabolic Systemic Diseases. Inborn Metabolic Diseases
Diabetes Mellitus
Cataracts Associated with Infectious Diseases
Cataracts Associated with Dietary Deficiencies
Traumatic Cataracts
Medical Treatment of Cataracts
Visual Consequences of Cataracts
Complication of Untreated Cataracts in Dogs
Lens‐Induced Uveitis
Nuclear Sclerosis
Lens Luxation
Primary Lens Luxation
Presentation and Clinical Signs of Primary Lens Luxation
Box 12.2 Clinical Findings in Lens Luxations
Breed Predisposition, Affected Genes, Genetic Tests, and Mode of Inheritance
Secondary Lens Luxation
Age‐Related Lens Luxation
Traumatic Lens Luxation
Glaucoma and Secondary Lens Luxation
Cataract‐Induced Lens Luxation
Diagnostic Approach and Medical Treatment of Lens Luxation
Treatment Approaches for PLL
Treatment Approaches for Secondary Lens Luxations
Section II: Cataract Surgery
Patient Selection
History, Systemic Evaluation, and Ophthalmic Examination
Signalment in Patient Selection
Decision for Surgery, Timing, Prognosis, and Outcome
Perioperative Therapy
Mydriasis
Anti‐inflammatories
Antibiotic Prophylaxis
Akinesia, Analgesia, and Anesthesia
Spontaneous Lens Capsule Rupture
Surgical Equipment and Devices
Surgical Approach
Phacoemulsification Techniques
Intraocular Lens
Viscoelastic Removal
Intraoperative Complications
Postoperative Complications of Phacoemulsification and IOL Implantation
Postoperative Therapy
Long‐Term Postoperative Complications. Corneal Complications
Surgery for Lens Instability (Luxation)
Surgical Management of Lens Luxations
Perioperative Medications in Instability
Standard Surgical Approach
Sulcus IOL Fixation
Secondary Glaucoma
Retinal Detachment
13 Diseases and Surgery of the Canine Posterior Segment
Section I: Diseases and Surgery of the Canine Vitreous
Development and Anatomy
Morphology
Diagnostic Procedures
Focal Light
Slit‐Lamp Biomicroscopy
Ophthalmoscopy
Diagnostic Imaging
Hyalocentesis
Therapeutic Procedures. Medical Treatment
Surgical Treatment
Vitrectomy
Anterior Vitrectomy
Pars Plana Posterior Vitrectomy
Vitreal Diseases. Developmental Disorders
Persistent Hyaloid Artery
Persistent Tunica Vasculosa Lentis
PHTVL/PHPV
Other Anomalies
Acquired Disorders. Trauma
Degenerative Vitreal Disorders and Reactions
Box 13.1 Vitreal Opacities or Floaters
Syneresis
Vitreous Floaters
Asteroid Hyalosis
Synchysis Scintillans
Intravitreal Membranes
Vitreal Inflammations
Cysts
Parasites
Neoplastic Disease
Vitreous in Relation to Other Ophthalmic Disorders. Lens Luxation
Retinal Detachment
Section II: Diseases of the Canine Ocular Fundus
Methods of Examination
Behavioral Testing
Testing Reflexes and Responses
Structural Visualization of the Fundus. Ophthalmoscopy
Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy
Optical Coherence Tomography
Adaptive Optics
Ultrasonography
Angiography
Functional Testing of the Retina. Electroretinography
Flash Electroretinography
Pattern ERG
Visually Evoked Potentials
Multifocal ERGs and VEPs
DNA‐Based Tests for Retinal Dystrophies
Normal Ocular Fundus
Tapetal Fundus
Nontapetal Fundus
Optic Nerve Head
Retinal Vasculature
Development of the Canine Ocular Fundus
Ophthalmoscopy
Functional and Morphological Development of the Retina
Developmental Anomalies
Collie Eye Anomaly
Clinical Findings
Difficulties in Diagnosis, Interpretation, and Control
Merle Ocular Dysgenesis
Retinal Dysplasia
Spontaneous Retinal Dysplasia
Clinical Signs
Breed Incidence and Inheritance
Canine Oculoskeletal Dysplasia – Dwarfism with Retinal Dysplasia
Inherited Retinal Dysplasia and Persistent Hyperplastic Primary Vitreous
Induced Retinal Dysplasia
Difficulties in Diagnosis, Interpretation, and Control
Canine Multifocal Retinopathy
Inherited Retinal Degenerations/Dystrophies
Classification of Canine Hereditary Retinal Degenerations
Clinical Signs of Hereditary Retinal Degeneration/Progressive Retinal Atrophy
Early‐Onset Photoreceptor Degenerations
Rod–Cone Dysplasia Type 2
Rod–Cone Dysplasia Type 3
Rod Dysplasia
Early Retinal Degeneration
Photoreceptor Dysplasia
Cone–Rod Dystrophy
Late‐Onset PhotoreceptorDegenerations. Progressive Rod–Cone Degeneration
prcd in the Miniature and Toy Poodle
prcd in Other Breeds
Autosomal Recessive PRA (Non‐prcd) in Other Breeds
X‐Linked Progressive Retinal Atrophy
Dominant Progressive Retinal Atrophy
PRA in Other Breeds Not Yet Characterized
Other Generalized Retinopathies/Retinal Dystrophies. Early Retinopathy
Cone Degeneration
Photoreceptor Dysplasia
RPE Autofluorescent Inclusion Epitheliopathy/Retinal Pigment Epithelial Dystrophy
Hereditary Retinal Dystrophy/Lipid Retinopathy/RPE65 Null Mutation/Canine Leber's Congenital Amaurosis
Pigmentary Chorioretinopathy
Neuronal Ceroid Lipofuscinosis
Mucopolysaccharide Storage Diseases
Inflammation and Infections Affecting the Ocular Fundus
Chorioretinitis
Box 13.2 Causes of Chorioretinitis and Retinochoroiditis in the Dog
Active Chorioretinitis
Inactive/Chronic Chorioretinitis
Choroiditis
Specific Retinopathies. Uveodermatologic/Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada Syndrome
Sudden Acquired Retinal Degeneration Syndrome
Retinal Toxicities. Drug‐Induced Retinotoxicity
Retinopathy Induced by Light and Oxygen
Retinopathy Induced by Radiation
Retinopathies of Nutritional Causes. Vitamin A Deficiency
Vitamin E Deficiency
Vascular Disease Processes
Systemic Hypertension
Hyperviscosity Syndromes
Hyperlipidemia
Diabetic Retinopathy
Retinopathies with Immunological Diseases. Immune‐Mediated Thrombocytopenia
Autoimmune Hemolytic Anemia
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Cancer‐Associated Retinopathy
Secondary Retinal Degenerations. Glaucoma
Retinal Detachments
Neoplastic and Proliferative Conditions. Granulomatous Meningoencephalitis (Reticulosis)
Primary Tumors
Choroidal Melanomas
Ocular Melanosis
Secondary Tumors
Metastatic Tumors
Lymphomas
Section III: Surgery of the Canine Posterior Segment
Anatomical Considerations
Vitreous
Pars Plana
Intrascleral Plexus
Types of Retinal Detachments
Factors Responsible for Retinal Detachment
Postoperative Phacoemulsification
Cataracts and Lens‐Induced Uveitis
Retinal Abnormalities
Vitreous
Trauma
Iatrogenic Causes
Tractional Retinal Detachment
Effusion
Persistent Hyperplastic Primary Vitreous
Endophthalmitis
Collie Eye Anomaly
Lens Luxation
Dropped Nuclear Fragments
Prophylactic Retinopexy
Procedure for Retinopexy
Surgical Procedures for Treatment of Retinal Detachment. Pneumatic Retinopexy
Demarcation and Barrier Retinopexy
Vitrectomy for Giant Retinal Tears
Criteria for Vitrectomy
Surgical Equipment
Other Available Procedures
Feline Retinal Reattachment Surgery
Success of Retinal Detachment Repair
Subretinal Injection
Section IV: Optic Nerve. Diseases of the Canine Optic Nerve
Structure and Function of the Optic Nerve
Intraocular Optic Nerve
Intraorbital Optic Nerve
Intracanalicular Optic Nerve
Intracranial Optic Nerve and Optic Chiasm
Clinical Examination of the Optic Nerve. Neuro‐ophthalmic Examination
Pupillometry
Ophthalmoscopy
Clinical Appearance of the Canine Optic Nerve Head
Optic Disc Cupping and the “Cup to Disc” Ratio
Angiography
Diagnostic Imaging in Optic Nerve Disease. Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Computed Tomography
Ultrasonography
Electrophysiological Testing in Optic Nerve Disease
Visual Evoked Potential
Optic Nerve Disorders: Congenital Optic Neuropathies. Optic Nerve Hypoplasia/Micropapilla
Box 13.3 Breeds of Dogs Reported with Optic Nerve Hypoplasia
Optic Nerve Aplasia
Box 13.4 Breeds of Dogs Reported with Micropapilla
Achiasmatic Belgian Sheepdogs
Optic Nerve Coloboma
Box 13.5 Breeds of Dogs Reported with Optic Nerve Colobomas
Acquired Optic Neuropathies
Differential Diagnosis of the “Swollen Disc” Pseudopapilledema
Box 13.6 Breeds of Dogs Reported with Pseudopapilledema
Papilledema
Inflammatory Optic Neuropathies
Box 13.7 Causes of Optic Neuritis in the Dog
Clinical Signs of Optic Neuritis
Causes of Optic Neuritis
Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prognosis
Traumatic Optic Neuropathies
Optic Nerve Degeneration
Optic Nerve Neoplasia
Secondary Neoplasia of the Optic Nerve
Optic Neuropathy in Glaucoma
14 Feline Ophthalmology
Introduction
Diseases of the Eyelids
Congenital Eyelid Abnormalities. Abnormalities of Eyelid Opening
Eyelid Agenesis
Structural Eyelid Abnormalities. Entropion
Dermoid
Blepharitis
Fungal Blepharitis
Parasitic Blepharitis
Viral Blepharitis
Protozoal Blepharitis
Bacterial Blepharitis
Immune‐Mediated Blepharitis
Allergic Blepharitis
Miscellaneous Blepharitis
Lipogranulomatous Conjunctivitis
Eyelid Cysts and Nodules
Eyelid Neoplasia
Diseases of the Nasolacrimal System
Diseases of the Third Eyelid
Horner's Syndrome
Idiopathic Third Eyelid Protrusion
Prolapsed Third Eyelid Gland
Neoplasia
Ocular Surface Disease
Conjunctival Disease
Chlamydia felis
Mycoplasma felis
Feline Calicivirus
Bordetella bronchiseptica
Eosinophilic Conjunctivitis
Epitheliotropic Mastocytic Conjunctivitis
Parasitic Conjunctivitis
Conjunctival Neoplasia. Melanoma
Lymphoma
Vascular Tumors
Conjunctival Surface Adenocarcinoma
Keratoconjunctival Disease
Feline Herpesvirus Type 1
Treatment
Antiviral Therapy
Lysine Therapy
Interferons
Symblepharon
Eosinophilic Keratitis/Proliferative Keratoconjunctivitis
Dry Eye Disease Syndromes
Corneal Disease. Normal Cornea
Corneal Ulceration
Fungal Keratitis
Florida Spots
Corneal Sequestrum
Acute Bullous Keratopathy
Corneal Dystrophies and Degenerations
Corneal Dermoids
Corneal Neoplasia
Diseases of the Anterior Uvea
Developmental or Structural Disorders. Uveal Pigmentation in White and Siamese Cats
Congenital Iris Anomalies
Acquired Iris Abnormalities. Iris Atrophy
Iris Cysts
Anterior Uveitis
Clinical Features of Feline Uveitis
Classification of Uveitis
Systemic Evaluation
Causes of Anterior Uveitis. Feline Leukemia Virus
Box 14.1 Causes of Uveitis in Cats
Feline Immunodeficiency Virus
Feline Infectious Peritonitis
Toxoplasmosis
Leishmaniasis
Systemic Fungal Infections
Bartonellosis
Ophthalmomyiasis
Traumatic Uveitis
Idiopathic Uveitis
Treatment of Anterior Uveitis
Anterior Uveal Neoplasia
Feline Diffuse Iris Melanoma
Feline Ocular Post‐traumatic Sarcoma
Metastatic Uveal Neoplasia
Glaucoma
Box 14.2 Types of Glaucoma in the Cat
Clinical Signs
Diseases of the Lens and Cataract Formation. Congenital Cataracts and Lens Anomalies
Primary and Secondary Cataract Formation
Lens Luxation
Cataract Surgery and Lensectomy
Diseases of the Posterior Segment
Vitreous
Acquired Disorders
Retina and Choroid
Retinal Dysplasia
Taurine Deficiency Retinopathy
Inherited Rod–Cone Dysplasia, Dystrophy, and Degenerations
Rod–Cone Dysplasia in the Abyssinian
Rod–Cone Degeneration in the Abyssinian
Progressive Retinal Atrophy in the Bengal Cat
Drug‐Associated Retinal Toxicity
Inflammation
Hypertensive Retinopathy
Hyperviscosity Retinopathy
Retinal Fold and Detachment
Posterior Segment Neoplasia
Lysosomal Storage Diseases
Diseases of the Optic Nerve and Central Nervous System. Congenital and Developmental Disorders
Optic Neuritis
Optic Nerve Atrophy
Diseases of the Orbit. Congenital and Developmental Disorders
Griseofulvin Teratogenesis
Traumatic Proptosis
Orbital Inflammations and Infections
Feline Restrictive Orbital Myofibroblastic Sarcoma
Orbital Neoplasia
Enucleation
15 Equine Ophthalmology
Examination of the Equine Eye
Ocular Problems in the Equine Neonate
Congenital Anomalies and Abnormalities. Microphthalmos
Orbit
Strabismus
Dermoids
Nasolacrimal System Atresia
Corneal Disease
Aniridia
Iridal Hypoplasia and Colobomata
Persistent Pupillary Membranes
Anterior Segment Dysgenesis
Hyaloid Artery Remnants
Cataracts
Congenital Glaucoma
Congenital Disorders of the Posterior Segment
Acquired Ocular and Adnexal Problems in the Foal. Entropion/Ectropion
Eyelid Trauma
Dacryocystitis
Conjunctivitis and Subconjunctival Hemorrhage
Ulcerative Keratitis in Foals
Noninfectious Persistent Corneal Erosions in Neonates
Iridocyclitis in Foals
Equine Orbit
Diagnostic Procedures
Retrobulbar Nerve Blocks
Surgical Techniques for the Orbit
Orbital Inflammation and Cellulitis
Orbital Fractures and Trauma
Orbital Neoplasia
Orbital Fat Prolapse
Diseases and Surgery of the Eyelids. Entropion
Eyelid Lacerations
Blepharitis
Eyelid Neoplasia
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Sarcoids
Melanoma
Lymphoma
Diseases of the Conjunctiva
Diseases of the Nictitating Membrane
Nasolacrimal Disease
Diseases of the Equine Cornea
Corneal Anatomy
Corneal Wound Healing
Inflammation
Perforating Injury
Corneal Infections
Ulcerative Keratitis. Diagnosis
Principles of Therapy for Ulcerative Keratitis
Medical Therapy. Antimicrobials
Control of Uveitis
Collagenolysis Prevention
Inappropriate Therapy
Superficial Uncomplicated Corneal Ulcers
Complicated Corneal Ulcers
Indolent Corneal Ulcers
Corneal Foreign Bodies
Fungal/Mycotic Keratitis
Medical Treatment
Surgical Treatment
Bacterial Keratitis
Corneal Perforation/Laceration
Surgical Therapy for Corneal Ulcers. Keratectomy
Conjunctival Grafts
Ocular Surface Reconstruction with Amniotic Membrane
Penetrating Keratoplasty
Nonulcerative Corneal Diseases
Corneal Stromal Abscesses
Penetrating Keratoplasty for Deep Corneal Stromal Abscesses
Lamellar Keratoplasty
Viral Keratitis
Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca
Immune‐Mediated Keratitis
Eosinophilic Keratitis
Corneal Dystrophy
Corneal Mineralization and Calcific Band Keratopathy
Linear Keratopathy
Corneal Neoplasia
Diseases of the Equine Uvea. Uveal Cysts
Uveal Neoplasia. Melanoma
Lymphoma
Uveitis
Equine Recurrent Uveitis
Clinical Signs of ERU
Pathogenesis of Recurrent Uveitis
Leptospirosis and ERU
Breed Susceptibility to ERU
Treatment of Equine Recurrent Uveitis
Medical Therapy for ERU
Vitrectomy
Long‐Term ERU Management
Prognosis for ERU
Heterochromic Iridocyclitis
Equine Glaucoma
Risk Factors for Equine Glaucoma
Treatment of Equine Glaucoma
Lens
Nuclear Sclerosis
Disorders of the Lens. Lens Luxation/Subluxation
Cataract
Developmental Cataracts
Heritability of Equine Cataracts
Acquired or Secondary Cataracts
Cataract Surgery
Posterior Segment
Disorders of the Vitreous
Chorioretinitis
Congenital Stationary Night Blindness
Equine Motor Neuron Disease
Retinal Detachment
Optic Nerve Atrophy
Traumatic Optic Neuropathy
Proliferative Optic Neuropathy
Exudative Optic Neuritis
Ischemic Optic Neuropathy
Photic Headshaking
16 Food and Fiber Animal Ophthalmology
Bovine Ocular Examination and Ophthalmic Parameters
Orbit and Globe
Congenital Globe Abnormalities and Blindness
Abnormalities of Globe Position and Movement
Retrobulbar Space‐Occupying Lesions
Orbital Neoplasia
Orbital Inflammation
Nystagmus
The Eyelids. Entropion and Eyelid Defects
Ectropion
Eyelid Trauma
Blepharitis. Bacterial
Mycotic
Ectoparasites
Photosensitization
Neoplasia
The Nasolacrimal System
Developmental Anomalies
Conjunctiva and Cornea
Congenital Anomalies. Dermoid
Congenital Porphyria and Protoporphyria
Inherited Corneal Disease
Phenothiazine‐Induced Corneal Disease
Parasitic Keratoconjunctivitis. Thelazia Species
Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis. Keratomycosis
Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis
Listerial Keratoconjunctivitis
Chlamydial Keratoconjunctivitis
Malignant Catarrhal Fever
Infectious Bovine Keratoconjunctivitis
Economic Impact
Incidence
Etiology
Morphology of Moraxella bovis
Transmission
Predisposing Factors
Pathogenesis
Clinical Signs
Medical Treatment
Vaccination
Neoplasia of the Conjunctiva and Cornea
Incidence
Geographic Distribution
Signalment
Genetic Predisposition
Etiology of OSCC
Clinical Signs
Metastatic Potential
Diagnosis
Treatment
Surgery. Salvage Procedures
Cryotherapy
Hyperthermia/Electrothermal Therapy
Immunotherapy
Radiation
Prevention and Control
Glaucoma
Uvea. Congenital Disorders of the Anterior Uvea
Heterochromia Iridis
Iris Abnormalities
Inflammation of the Uvea
Uveal Tumors
Lens
Congenital and Juvenile Cataracts
Acquired and Secondary Cataracts
Treatment of Cataracts
Ocular Fundi. Ophthalmoscopic Examination
Congenital Disorders
Colobomatous Malformations
Congenital Vascular Anomalies
Retinal Dysplasia
Osteopetrosis‐Induced Ocular Fundus Disease
Inflammations of the Posterior Segment
Degeneration of the Ocular Fundus. Possible Hereditary Retinal Degeneration
Vitamin A Deficiency
Retrobulbar Neuropathy and Retinal Degeneration
Hypothiaminosis
Locoweed Poisoning
Other Toxic Plants
Inherited Lysosomal Storage Diseases
Optic Nerve Diseases
Sheep and Goats. Ocular Examination and Ophthalmic Parameters
Orbit and Globe. Congenital Globe Abnormalities and Blindness
Teratogenic Agents. Veratrum californicum
Selenium
Eyelids. Entropion
Ectropion
Eyelid Colobomas
Blepharitis. Bacterial
Mycotic
Viral
Ectoparasites
Photosensitization
Conjunctiva and Cornea
Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis
Chlamydial Keratoconjunctivitis
Mycoplasmal Keratoconjunctivitis
Branhamella Keratoconjunctivitis
Parasitic Keratoconjunctivitis. Oestrus ovis
Thelazia Species
Ocular Squamous Cell Carcinoma
Glaucoma
Uvea. Iris Abnormalities
Inflammation of the Uvea
Uveal Tumors
Lens. Congenital Cataracts
Acquired Cataracts
Ocular Fundi. Ophthalmoscopic Examination
Retinal Dysplasia
Inflammation of the Ocular Fundus
Retinal Degeneration in Toggenburg Goats
Stypandra glauca Intoxication
Hypothiaminosis
Pteris aquilinum ‐Induced Retinal Degeneration
Scrapie
Central Blindness
Pigs. Orbit and Globe
Congenital Globe Abnormalities and Blindness
Eyelids. Entropion
Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis
Acquired Corneal Diseases. Phenothiazine
Neoplasia of the Conjunctiva and Cornea
Uveal Tract. Congenital Disorders of the Anterior Uvea
Inflammation of the Uvea
Lens. Congenital Cataracts
Acquired and Secondary Cataracts
Ocular Fundi. Ophthalmoscopic Examination
Colobomatous Malformations
Congenital Vascular Anomalies
Inflammation of the Ocular Fundus
Degeneration of the Ocular Fundus
New World Camelids
Ocular Examination and Ocular Parameters
Orbit and Globe
Eyelids and Nasolacrimal System
Blepharitis
Developmental Anomalies of the Nasolacrimal System
Dacryocystitis
Conjunctiva
Congenital Disorders
Conjunctivitis
Cornea
Ulcerative Keratitis
Stromal Abscess
Corneal Dystrophy and Degeneration
Anterior Segment
Congenital Disorders of the Uvea
Anterior Uveitis
Posterior Segment
Diseases of the Posterior Segment
Congenital
Acquired
Lens. Cataract
Glaucoma
Ocular Neoplasia
17 Exotic Animals: Ophthalmic Diseases and Surgery
Considerations for Ophthalmic Examinations in Laboratory Animals
Ocular Diseases in the Mouse and Rat
Orbital Space‐Occupying Lesions
Conjunctivitis
Sialodacryoadenitis
Microphthalmos
Corneal Opacification and Inflammation
Corneal Dystrophy
Anterior Uvea Lesions
Glaucoma
Cataracts
Posterior Segment
Guinea Pig
Congenital/Developmental Anomalies
Retrobulbar Disease
Eyelids and Conjunctiva
Cornea
Heterotopic Bone Formation (Osseous Metaplasia)
Cataracts
Chinchilla
Ferret
Rabbits
Special Characteristics of the Rabbit Eye
Ocular Diseases in the Rabbit
Orbital Diseases. Congenital/Developmental Anomalies
Orbital Gland Diseases
Adnexal Disease. Blepharitis
Entropion
Conjunctival Overgrowth
Conjunctivitis
Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca
Nasolacrimal Duct Abnormalities
Corneal Disease
Glaucoma
Uveitis
Cataracts
Diseases of the Fundus
Surgery – Enucleation
Miniature Pig
Congenital/Developmental Anomalies
Adnexa and Anterior Segment
Posterior Segment
Nonhuman Primates
Adnexal and Ocular Surface Disease
Anterior Segment Disease
Posterior Segment Disease
Exotic Animals
Considerations for Ophthalmic Examination in Exotic Animals
Fish
Ocular Anatomy
Examination Techniques
Ocular Diseases
Amphibians. Ocular Anatomy
Ocular Diseases
Reptiles. Ocular Anatomy
Ocular Diseases
Malformations
Infections
Bacterial Infections
Fungal Infections
Parasitic Infections
Neoplasia
Degenerations
Retained Spectacles
Vitamin A Deficiency
Mammals
Population Surveys of Ocular Disorders
Malformations
Inflammations and Infections
Corneal Degeneration
Cataract Formation
Diseases of the Ocular Fundus
Neoplasia
Trauma
Avian Ophthalmology
Ocular Anatomy
Examination Techniques
Ophthalmic Diseases
Developmental Malformations
Inflammations and Infections
Degenerations
Neoplasia
Vitamin A Deficiency
Trauma
Penguins
Enucleation and Evisceration
Marine and Other Aquatic Mammals
Examination Techniques
Pinnipeds
Ocular Diseases. Eyelids/Periocular Region Diseases
Corneal Diseases
Walrus
Lens Disorders
18 Neuro‐ophthalmology
Neuro‐ophthalmic Examination. The Distant Examination
Nystagmus
Strabismus
Anisocoria and Pupil Size
Reflex and Response Testing
Pupillary Light Reflex
Swinging Flashlight Test
Dazzle Reflex (Photic Blink Reflex)
Menace Response
Palpebral Reflex
Corneal Reflex
Vestibulo‐ocular Reflex and Physiological Nystagmus
Vision Testing. Obstacle Course (Maze Testing)
Visual Placing
Schirmer Tear Testing
Pharmacological Testing
Parasympathetic Lesions
Sympathetic Lesions
Neuroanatomical Lesion Localization
Braund's Syndromes
Horner's Syndrome
Cavernous Sinus Syndrome
Box 18.1 Cerebral Syndrome
Hemifacial Spasm (Hemifacial Tetany)
Box 18.2 Midbrain Syndrome
Box 18.3 Cavernous Sinus Syndrome
Pourfour du Petit Syndrome
Static Anisocoria (Spastic Pupil Syndrome) and Hemidilated Pupil
Neuro‐ophthalmic Diseases
Congenital – Dog. Achiasmatic Sheepdog
Congenital Deafness and Vestibular Disease
Hydrocephalus
Developmental – Dog. Fibrosing Esotropia
Acquired – Dog. Canine Distemper
Idiopathic Facial Nerve Paralysis
Meningoencephalitis of Unknown Etiology
Myasthenia Gravis
Neoplasia – Central Nervous System
Neurogenic Keratoconjunctivitis Sicca
Congenital – Feline. Visual System Anomalies and Forms of Albinism
Developmental – Feline. Chediak–Higashi Syndrome
Acquired – Feline. Dysautonomia (Key–Gaskell or Dilated Pupil Syndrome)
Feline Leukemia Virus
Fluoroquinolones
Nictitating Membrane Protrusion
Neoplasia – Central Nervous System
Equine – Congenital. Congenital Stationary Night Blindness
Equine Viral Encephalomyelitis
Equine Protozoal Myeloencephalitis
West Nile Virus
Food Animals – Congenital. Pendular Nystagmus
Food Animals – Developmental. Bilateral Convergent Strabismus with Exophthalmos
Food Animals – Acquired. Bovine Virus Diarrhea
Bracken Fern Poisoning (Bright Blindness)
19 Ocular Manifestations of Systemic Disease
Introduction
Section I: Dogs. Congenital. Coat Color‐Related Diseases/Conditions in Dogs
Dwarfism (Skeletal Dysplasia–Osteochondrodysplasia)
Hydrocephalus in Dogs
Myasthenia Gravis
Quadriplegia and Amblyopia
Developmental. Inborn Errors of Intermediary Metabolism
Acquired. Cardiovascular Diseases
Hematological Diseases
Idiopathic Systemic Diseases. Canine Idiopathic Granulomatous Disease
Dysautonomia
Granulomatous Meningoencephalitis
Sudden Acquired Retinal Degeneration Syndrome
Immune‐Mediated Diseases. Dermatological Diseases
Juvenile Pyoderma/Cellulitis (Puppy Strangles)
Myositides. Dermatomyositis
Masticatory Myositis and Extraocular Myositis
Uveodermatologic Syndrome (Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada‐Like Syndrome)
Infectious Diseases. Algal Diseases. Protothecosis
Bacterial
Bartonellosis
Borreliosis (Lyme Disease)
Brucellosis
Leptospirosis
Tetanus
Mycotic. Acremoniosis
Aspergillosis
Blastomycosis
Coccidioidomycosis (Valley Fever; San Joaquin Valley Fever)
Cryptococcosis
Parasitic – Dipteric Larvae. Ophthalmomyiasis
Parasitic – Nematodes. Angiostrongylosis (Heartworm of France; French Heartworm)
Dirofilariasis (Canine Heartworm Disease)
Onchocerciasis (Onchocercosis)
Strongyloidiasis (Hookworms)
Toxocariasis (Roundworm Ascarids)
Parasitic – Mites. Demodicosis
Sarcoptic Acariasis (Sarcoptic Mange, Canine Scabies)
Leishmaniasis
Rickettsial Diseases
Canine Cyclic Thrombocytopenia
Canine Ehrlichiosis
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
Viral. Canine Distemper
Herpesviruses. Canine Herpesvirus
Infectious Canine Hepatitis (Canine Adenovirus Type‐1)
Papillomavirus
Tick‐Borne Encephalitis Virus
Metabolic Diseases. Diabetes Mellitus
Hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing's Syndrome)
Hypothyroidism
Ionic Disturbances. Hypocalcemia
Neoplasia – Central Nervous System
Cavernous Sinus Syndrome
Neoplasia – Systemic. Lymphosarcoma
Other – Metastases
Nutritional Disorders. Milk Replacer‐Induced Disease
Vitamin A Deficiency
Vitamin E Deficiency
Toxicities
Miscellaneous Diseases. Systemic Histiocytosis
Section II: Cats. Congenital. Coat Color‐Related Diseases/Conditions. White Coat Color, Blue Irides, and Deafness
Visual System Anomalies and Forms of Albinism
Chediak–Higashi Syndrome
Developmental. Lysosomal Storage Diseases
Alpha‐Mannosidosis
Gangliosidoses. GM1‐Gangliosidosis
GM 2 Gangliosidosis (Sandhoff Disease)
Mucolipidosis II (I‐Cell Disease)
Mucopolysaccharidosis
Sphingomyelin Lipidosis (Niemann–Pick Disease)
Acquired. Cardiovascular Diseases. Hypertension
Hematological Diseases. Anemia
Thrombocytopenia and Thrombopathies
Hyperlipidemia
Hyperviscosity Syndrome
Hypoxia
Idiopathic Systemic Diseases. Dysautonomia (Key–Gaskell or Dilated Pupil Syndrome)
Ischemic Encephalopathy
Nictitating Membrane Protrusion
Immune‐Mediated Diseases. Dermatological Diseases
Infectious Diseases. Bacterial
Bartonellosis
Chlamydophilosis
Mycobacteriosis
Mycoplasmosis
Tetanus
Mycotic. Blastomycosis
Coccidioidomycosis
Cryptococcosis
Histoplasmosis
Parasitic – Dipteric Larvae. Ophthalmomyiasis Interna/Externa
Parasitic – Nematodes. Onchocerciasis (Onchocercosis)
Parasitic – Protozoal. Leishmaniasis
Toxoplasmosis
Viral. Calicivirus
Feline Coronavirus (Feline Infectious Peritonitis)
Feline Herpesvirus Type 1
Feline Immunodeficiency Virus
Feline Leukemia Virus
Feline Panleukopenia Virus
Feline Sarcoma Virus
Metabolic Diseases. Diabetes Mellitus
Hyperthyroidism
Ionic Disturbances. Hypocalcemia
Neoplasia – Central Nervous System
Neoplasia – Systemic. Lymphosarcoma
Other – Metastases
Nutritional Disorders. Milk Replacer‐Induced Disease
Taurine Deficiency
Thiamine Deficiency
Systemic Toxicities. Antimicrobials. Fluoroquinolones
Griseofulvin
Ivermectin
Megestrol Acetate
Section III: Horses. Congenital. Coat Color‐Related Diseases/Conditions
Lethal White Foal Syndrome (Lethal White Overo Syndrome)
Congenital Stationary Night Blindness
Multiple Congenital Ocular Anomaly Syndrome
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency
Vitamin E‐Deficient Retinopathy
Immunoglobulin M Deficiency
Acquired. Photic Headshaking
Infectious Diseases. Borreliosis (Lyme Disease)
Leptospirosis
Rhodococcus equi
Salmonellosis (Paratyphoid)
Streptococcus equi (Strangles, Distemper)
Parasitic – Nematodes. Habronemiasis (Habronemiosis, Summer Sores, Swamp Cancer)
Onchocerciasis (Onchocercosis)
Parasitic – Protozoal. Babesiosis (Equine Piroplasmosis, Biliary Fever)
Equine Viral Arteritis
Equine Viral Encephalomyelitis
West Nile Virus
Section IV: Food Animals. Congenital. Complete or Incomplete Albinism
Infectious Diseases. Chlamydiosis
Mycoplasmosis (Infectious Keratoconjunctivitis)
Histophilus somnus (Thromboembolic Meningoencephalitis, Histophilosis Sleeper Calves)
Bluetongue
Bovine Virus Diarrhea
Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis
Malignant Catarrhal Fever
Scrapie
Vitamin A Deficiency
Appendix A Inherited Ophthalmic Diseases in the Dog
Appendix B Inherited Eye Diseases in the Cat
Appendix C Inherited Eye Diseases in the Horse
Appendix D Inherited Eye Diseases in Production Animals
Appendix E Lysosomal Storage Diseases in the Dog, Cat, and Food Animals
Glossary. Common ophthalmic roots:
Common words:
Index
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