Reconstructing Earth's Climate History

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Kristen St. John. Reconstructing Earth's Climate History

Table of Contents

List of Tables

List of Illustrations

Guide

Pages

Reconstructing Earth's Climate History. Inquiry‐Based Exercises for Lab and Class

The Authors

Foreword from First Edition

Acknowledgments

Book Introduction to the Second Edition for Students and Instructors

Motivation and Purpose

Use of Real Data

Content Topics

Transportable Skills

Practical Use of Multipart Exercises

Audience

Classroom Tested

About the Companion Website

Chapter 1 Introduction to Paleoclimate Records

SUMMARY

Part 1.1. Archives and Proxies

Part 1.2. Obtaining Cores from Terrestrial and Marine Paleoclimate Archives

Coring Terrestrial Paleoclimate Archives

Tree Rings: Dendrochronology

Cave Deposits: Speleothems

Glacial Ice

Coring Marine Paleoclimate Archives. Corals

Ocean Sediments

Part 1.3. Owens Lake – An Introductory Case Study of Paleoclimate Reconstruction

References

Chapter 2 Seafloor Sediments

SUMMARY

Part 2.1. Sediment Predictions

Part 2.2. Core Observation and Description. Introduction

Part 2.3. Sediment Composition. Introduction

DETERMINING LITHOLOGIC NAMES WITH A DECISION TREE

Part 2.4. Seafloor Sediment Synthesis

References

Chapter 3 Geologic Time and Geochronology. SUMMARY

Part 3.1. The Geologic Timescale. Introduction

Initial Observations

Part 3.2. Principles of Stratigraphy and Determining Relative Ages. Using Principles of Stratigraphy to Determine Relative Ages

Part 3.3. Radiometric Age Dating Fundamentals. Introduction to Radiometric Age Dating

Limitations on Radiometric Dating Techniques

Part 3.4. Using 40K – 40Ar Dating to Determine the Numerical Ages of Layered Volcanic Rocks. Introduction to a Case Study from Jokuldalur, Iceland

Extension: Radiometric Dating and the Development of the Geomagnetic Polarity Timescale

Part 3.5. Using Uranium Series Dating to Determine Changes in Growth Rate of Speleothems. An Introduction to Radiometric Dating of Sediments and Sedimentary Rocks

An Introduction to Uranium Series Dating of Corals and Speleothems

A Case Study of Speleothem Dating using 234U – 230Th

References

Chapter 4 Paleomagnetism and Magnetostratigraphy

SUMMARY:

Part 4.1. Earth's Magnetic Field Today and the Paleomagnetic Record of Deep‐Sea Sediments. Initial Ideas

Earth's Magnetic Field Today: A Useful Analogy

Why Do We Care About Paleomagnetism?

Natural Remanent Magnetization in Sediments and Igneous Rocks

Paleomagnetic Reversals (i.e. Reversals of Magnetic Polarity)

Paleomagnetism in Sediment Cores

Part 4.2. History of Discovery: Paleomagnetism in Ocean Crust and Marine Sediments. Magnetic Intensity Data from the East Pacific Rise

Seafloor Magnetic Anomalies

Connecting Magnetic Data from the Sea and Land

Part 4.3. Using Paleomagnetism to Test the Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis. The Seafloor Spreading Hypothesis

Application of Paleomagnetism

Part 4.4. The Geomagnetic Polarity Timescale

References

Chapter 5 Microfossils and Biostratigraphy

SUMMARY

Part 5.1. What Are Microfossils? Why Are They Important in Climate Change Science? Introduction

Trophic Levels and Productivity

Marine Microfossils of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras

Part 5.2. Microfossils in Deep‐Sea Sediments. Initial Ideas

Microfossils in Smear Slides

Biostratigraphy Case Study: A First Look at Calcareous Nannofossil Data from ODP Hole 1208A

Part 5.3. Application of Microfossil First and Last Occurrences. Introduction

Biostratigraphy Overview

Biostratigraphy Case Study: Applying a Biostratigraphic Zonal Scheme to ODP Hole 1208A

Part 5.4. Using Microfossil Datums to Calculate Sedimentation Rates. Introduction to Sedimentation Rates

Case Study: Determining Sedimentation Rates at ODP Hole 1208A

Part 5.5. How Reliable Are Microfossil Datums? Introduction

Comparison of Sediment Accumulation Rate Histories

Part 5.6. Organic‐Walled Microfossils: Marine Dinoflagellates and Terrestrial Pollen and Spores. Introduction to Palynomorphs

Palynomorphs Case Study: Hole M27A on the New Jersey Continental Shelf

References

Chapter 6 CO2 as a Climate Regulator During the Phanerozoic and Today

SUMMARY

Part 6.1. The Short‐Term Global Carbon Cycle. Introduction

Part 6.2. CO2 and Temperature. The Greenhouse Effect

A Special Note about Ozone

The Direct Effect of CO2 on Temperature: Understanding Radiative Forcing

Other Radiative Forcing Factors

Indirect Effects of CO2 on Temperature: Earth System Feedbacks

Temperature Sensitivity

Part 6.3. Recent Changes in CO2

Part 6.4. The Long‐Term Global Carbon Cycle, CO2, and Phanerozoic Climate History. The Long‐Term Carbon Cycle

CO2 and Long‐Term Climate History: What Proxies and Models Tell Us

Long‐Term Climate States: Greenhouse and Icehouse Worlds

Predictions of Future CO2 Levels

Our Species and the CO2 Story

Part 6.5. Carbon Isotopes as a Tool for Tracking Changes in the Carbon Cycle. Introduction

UNDERSTANDING STABLE CARBON ISOTOPES

The Atmospheric δ13C Record of the Recent Past

Trends in Global Ocean δ13C for the Past 80 Million Years

References

Chapter 7 Oxygen Isotopes as Proxies of Climate Change

SUMMARY

Part 7.1. Introduction to Oxygen Isotope Records from Ice and Ocean Sediments. Introduction

Part 7.2. The Hydrologic Cycle and Isotopic Fractionation. Introduction

Stable Isotopes of Oxygen

Hydrologic Cycle and Isotopic Fractionation

Part 7.3. δ18O in Meteoric Water and Glacial Ice. Introduction

Temperature‐Dependent Fractionation

MEASURING δ18O IN METEORIC WATER AND ICE

Revisiting the Pleistocene–Holocene δ18O Greenland Ice Sheet Record

Hydrogen: Another Isotopic Paleotemperature Proxy in Ice

Comparison of Isotopic Paleotemperature Proxies and CO2 in Ice

Part 7.4. δ18O in Marine Sediments. An Application of Important Marine Microfossils

A Biogeochemical Proxy for Ice Volume and Temperature

MEASURING δ18O FROM MARINE MICROFOSSILS

Using the Marine δ18O Record to Interpret Cenozoic Climate Change

References

Chapter 8 Climate Cycles

SUMMARY

Part 8.1. Patterns and Periodicities. Introduction

Record 1. Greenhouse Gases in the Vostok Ice Core, Antarctica

Record 2. Magnetic Susceptibility in Loess and Soil, Central China

Record 3. Freshwater Diatoms, North Atlantic Ocean

Record 4. Benthic Oxygen Isotopes, Global Ocean

Record 5. Terrestrial Pollen and Spores, Marine Microfossils, and Ice‐rafted Debris, Central Arctic Ocean

Record 6. Color Reflectance of Lacustrine Mudstone and Limestone, NE Spain

Record 7. Color Reflectance and Sediment Bulk Density, Shatsky Rise, NW Pacific Ocean

Synthesis

Case Study of Record 7 from Shatsky Rise, NW Pacific

Smear Slide Compositional Data

XRF Elemental Composition Data

Part 8.2. Orbital Metronome. Annual Cyclicity

Long‐term Changes of Earth's Geometry in Space Relative to the Sun

Orbital Control of Earth's Climate Cycles

Part 8.3. Glacial–Interglacial Periods and Modern Climate Change. Characterizing Glacial and Interglacial Periods

Situating Modern Climate Change within the Glacial–Interglacial Cycles

References

Chapter 9 The Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) Event

SUMMARY

Part 9.1. An Important Discovery. Introduction

Dynamic Science

Part 9.2. Global Consequences of the PETM. Global Data Exploration

Record A. Benthic Foram Carbon and Oxygen Stable Isotope Records from Multiple Deep‐Sea Sites

Record B1. ODP Leg 198 Sites on Shatsky Rise in the Paleo‐Subtropical Pacific

Record B2. Stable Isotope Data from ODP Leg 198 Site 1209 on Shatsky Rise

DEEP‐SEA CARBONATE AND THE CALCITE (OR CARBONATE) COMPENSATION DEPTH (THE “CCD”)

Record B3. Planktic and Benthic Foram Changes at ODP Leg 198 Sites 1209 and 1210, Shatsky Rise

Record C. ODP Leg 199 Sites 1220 and 1221 in the Paleo‐Tropical Central Pacific

Record D. ODP Leg 113 Site 690 in the Southern High Latitudes Near Antarctica

Record E. ODP Leg 208 Sites on Walvis Ridge in the Southeast Atlantic

Record F. Environmental Changes on the Paleo‐Continental Shelf of Eastern North America

Record G. The Arctic Ocean, Lomonosov Ridge, IODP Expedition 302

Record H. The North Atlantic Igneous Province and the Opening of the Northern North Atlantic

Record I. Floral Changes in Wyoming

Record J. Clay Mineral Changes in North Dakota

Synthesis and Discussion

Part 9.3. Two Hypotheses for the Cause of the PETM

Part 9.4. Rates of Onset and Duration of Event. How Quickly Did the PETM Carbon Isotope Excursion Occur?

High Resolution Exploration of the Onset and Duration of the PETM

Part 9.5. Global Warming Today and Lessons from the PETM. Introduction

Comparing Rates of Global Warming and Carbon Accumulation for the PETM and Today

Thinking About the PETM Recovery and Our Future

References

NOTES

Chapter 10 Glaciation of Antarctica: The Oi1 Event

SUMMARY

Part 10.1. Initial Evidence. Introduction

Initial Observations from ODP Site 748

Part 10.2. Evidence for Global Change. Introduction

Record A1. High‐resolution Record of the Oi1 Event at ODP Site 1218 (ODP Leg 199) in the Tropical Pacific

DEEP‐SEA CARBONATE AND THE CALCITE (OR CARBONATE) COMPENSATION DEPTH (THE “CCD”)

Record A2. The Eocene–Oligocene Transition and the Oi1 Event in the Deep Sea Tropical Pacific (ODP Leg 199)

Record B. The Eocene–Oligocene Transition and the Oi1 Event in the Deep Sea Southeast Atlantic along the Walvis Ridge (ODP Leg 208)

Record C. The Eocene–Oligocene transition on the South Tasman Rise (ODP Leg 189)

Record D1. The Eocene–Oligocene Transition at Site 699, Southern South Atlantic (ODP Leg 114)

Record D2. High‐resolution Records of the Eocene–Oligocene Transition in the Southern Ocean: Southern Kerguelen Plateau Sites 748 (ODP Leg 120) and 744 (ODP Leg 119), and Maud Rise Site 689 (ODP Leg 113)

Record E. New Jersey Coastal Plain and Continental Margin Sea Level Reconstruction

Record F. Tanzania Coastal Plain Biotic Turnover

Synthesis and Discussion

Part 10.3. Mountain Building, Weathering, CO2 and Climate

Putting it All Together

Alternate Hypotheses for the Glaciation of Antarctica

Part 10.4. Legacy of the Oi1 Event: The Development of the Psychrosphere

Water Masses and Water Column Stratification

The Psychrosphere, Deep Water Masses, and Thermohaline Circulation

References

Chapter 11 Antarctic Climate Variability in the Neogene

SUMMARY

Part 11.1. What Do We Think We Know About the History of Antarctic Climate? Introduction

Part 11.2. What is Antarctica's Geographic and Geologic Context? Weather

Antarctic Ice

Bedrock Geology of the McMurdo Sound Region

The Cenozoic Sedimentary Sequence in the Ross Sea Region

Challenges Associated with Obtaining a Drillcore

Part 11.3. Selecting Drillsites to Best Answer our Questions. Introduction

Selecting Two Drillsites

Part 11.4. What Sediment Facies are Common on the Antarctic Margin? Introduction

Ice‐proximal and Ice‐distal Lithologies

LITHOLOGY: DIATOMITE

LITHOLOGY: SEDIMENT CONTAINING ICEBERG‐RAFTED DEBRIS

LITHOLOGY: DIAMICT

LITHOLOGY: WELL‐SORTED SANDS AND/OR GRAVELS

SEDIMENTARY FACIES

SEQUENCE MOTIFS

Part 11.5. The BIG Picture of ANDRILL 1‐B. About ANDRILL

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHIC UNITS (LSUs)

References

Chapter 12 Pliocene Warmth as an Analog for Our Future

SUMMARY

Learning Objectives

Part 12.1. The Last 5 Million Years. 12.1 Initial Observations: Pliocene vs. Modern Geography

The Deep‐Sea Benthic Foraminiferal Oxygen Isotope Record

Comparison of Climate Cyclicity in Deep‐Sea Oxygen Isotopes and Antarctic Marine Sediments

Continental Record of the Late Pliocene and Pliocene–Pleistocene Transition: Lake E, NE Siberia

Part 12.2. Pliocene Latitudinal Temperature Gradient. The Pliocene Research, Interpretation and Synoptic Mapping (PRISM) Project

Part 12.3. Estimates of Pliocene CO2. Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide and Global Climate

Part 12.4. Sea Level Past, Present, and Future. Pliocene Sea Level Compared with Pleistocene Interglacials

What if Global Warming Causes Ice Sheet Collapse this Century?

Relative Sea Level Rise Has Begun

Future Sea Level Rise

References

Chapter 13 Climate, Climate Change, and Life

SUMMARY

Learning Objectives

Part 13.1. Initial Ideas

Part 13.2. The Long View: “Precambrian” and Phanerozoic Life and Climate. Overview of Early Life on Earth

Exploring Evolutionary Relationships Between Animals and the Base of the Food Chain

Exploration 1: Evolutionary Relationships between Animals and Land Plants in the Late Paleozoic

Exploration 2: Marine Phytoplankton and Animal Evolution in the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras

Part 13.3. Examples of Cenozoic Terrestrial Evolution and Climate Connections

Mammal Evolution in the Aftermath of the K/Pg Mass Extinction and PETM

Early Primates and the PETM

Large Terrestrial Mammals and Global Climate During the Cenozoic

Coevolution of Horses and Grasses

Global Climate and the Spread of Grasslands

Part 13.4. Examples of Cenozoic Marine Biotic Evolution and Climate Connections. Biosiliceous Sediments and the Climate Connection

Climate Connections

Evolution of Marine Ecosystems During the Cenozoic: Diatoms to Whales

Abstract

Summary Points (Modified Slightly from Uhen 2010)

Synthesis

Part 13.5. Humanity, Climate, and Life

Hominin Evolution and Climate Change

Human Population and Alteration of the Earth

The Anthropocene: A New Geologic Time Unit?

Part 13.6. Humanity and Future Climate: At a Tipping Point

References

Chapter 14 Climate Change and Civilization

SUMMARY

Learning Objectives

Part 14.1. Climate Change Here and Now. Recent Changes Globally to Locally

Vulnerability and Readiness

Part 14.2. Evidence of Climatic Stress on Ancient Maya Civilization. Introduction

Regional Tropical Climate

The Cariaco Basin Geologic Setting and Sediment Record

The Cariaco Basin Paleoclimate Record – Extreme Events

The Lake Chichancanab Paleoclimate Record – A Local Perspective

The Lake Punta Laguna Paleoclimate Record – Another Local Perspective

Synthesis

Part 14.3. The Precipitation Record of the North American Southwest: The Physical Record and Human Response. Introduction

Examining Current Drought Conditions in the Four Corners Region

Reconstructing the Local History of Precipitation Using Proxy Data from Tree Rings

Reconstructing Drought Conditions in the Four Corners Region from Tree Rings

Expanding to a Regional‐Scale View of Drought

Water Availability and the Anasazi

From Proxies to the Instrumental Record

From the Past and Present into the Future

References

Index

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Second edition

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In using this inquiry‐based book we hope you gain new knowledge, new skills, and greater confidence in making sense of the causes and consequences of climate change. Enjoy the challenge and the reward of working with scientific data and results!

Kristen St. John, Mark Leckie, Kate Pound, Megan Jones, and Larry Krissek

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