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Lisa J. Cohen
The Handy Psychology Answer Book
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Страница 1
Страница 2
About the Author
Страница 4
Страница 5
THE HANDY PSYCHOLOGY ANSWER BOOK
Contents
Acknowledgments
Photo Sources
Страница 10
INTRODUCING PSYCHOLOGY
THE BASICS What is psychology?
How does psychology relate to everyday life?
How does psychology interact with biology and sociology?
What do psychologists do?
What is the major professional association of American psychologists?
What is the difference between psychologists and psychiatrists?
What are the divisions of the American Psychological Association?
PSYCHOLOGY BEFORE PSYCHOLOGY When was the field of psychology established?
What came before psychology?
What did the ancient Greeks have to say about psychology?
What is the Greek root of the word “psychology”?
Did Homer have a concept of the mind?
When did the Greeks turn to questions of psychology?
What are the four bodily humors?
What did Plato and Aristotle have to say about psychology?
Does life have a purpose?
Did Plato’s ideas anticipate Freud in any way?
Did the Roman statesman Cicero have anything to add about the mind?
What happened to the Greeks’ ideas after the fall of the Roman Empire?
How were questions of psychology addressed in medieval Christianity?
What was happening in the Muslim world during the Middle Ages?
When did more modern approaches to psychology begin?
Who were some influential philosophers in early modern times and what did they have to say about the mind?
What was Descartes’s contribution to the history of psychology?
How did Descartes understand the workings of the brain and the nervous system?
How did Spinoza contribute to the history of psychology?
What is folk psychology and how does it deal with the issues of everyday life?
What were Thomas Hobbes’s views about the relationships between ideas?
How did John Locke build on earlier ideas?
How is the scientific revolution relevant to psychology?
What was the scientific revolution?
PSYCHOLOGY IN OTHER CULTURES How have other cultures addressed psychological issues?
How is shamanism relevant to psychology?
Do Eastern religions have concepts about psychology?
What tenets of Buddhism are relevant to psychology?
What aspects of Hinduism are relevant to psychology?
How do the tenets of Eastern religions relate to modern Western psychology?
HISTORY AND PIONEERS What was the scientific climate at the birth of psychology?
What is the scientific method and how is it relevant to the history of psychology?
Why is Wilhelm Wundt considered the father of psychology?
What is phrenology?
Why is William James considered the father of American psychology?
How did James differ from Wundt in his approach to psychology?
How did James’s functionalism differ from Wundt’s structuralism?
Who was Francis Galton?
What were the contributions of Francis Galton?
What is eugenics?
How can social prejudice impact psychological data?
What influence did Emil Kraepelin and Eugen Bleuler have on views of mental illness?
SIGMUND FREUD Who was Sigmund Freud?
What are the major tenets of his theory of psychoanalysis?
What was Freud’s view of the unconscious?
What was Freud’s theory of the instincts?
Where does childhood come in with Freud?
What was revolutionary about Freud?
How original were Freud’s ideas?
What was controversial about Freud?
How has Freudian theory influenced culture?
JOHN B. WATSON AND B. F. SKINNER Who was John B. Watson?
What was unusual about Watson’s personal life?
Who was B.F. Skinner?
What is Skinner’s concept of operant conditioning?
What was Skinner’s contribution to behavioral modification?
Did Skinner raise his daughter in a baby-tender?
What is the Skinner box?
What were Skinner’s contributions to educational practices?
JEAN PIAGET Who was Jean Piaget?
How was Piaget influenced by working with intelligence tests?
What did Piaget discover?
What did Piaget think about the nature/nurture debate?
How do children learn by action?
What is object permanence?
What is a schema?
What are assimilation and accommodation?
How have Piaget’s theories been criticized?
What role did Piaget’s children have in the development of his theories?
MAJOR MOVEMENTS IN PSYCHOLOGY
BEHAVIORISM What is behaviorism?
What was Thorndike’s Law of Effect?
What is the black box theory of the mind?
How do behaviorists understand learning?
What famous experiment did Ivan Pavlov perform using dogs?
What is associative or classical conditioning?
What is the difference between the conditioned and the unconditioned stimulus?
What is the difference between the conditioned and the unconditioned response?
How is classical conditioning relevant to everyday life?
How is classical conditioning relevant to animal behavior?
What is operant conditioning?
What are reinforcers?
What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?
How effective is punishment?
How is operant conditioning relevant to everyday life?
How is operant conditioning relevant to animal life?
How is classical conditioning related to drug addiction?
What is extinction?
How do reinforcement conditions affect learning?
Why is intermittent reinforcement more resistant to extinction?
What problems with behaviorism started to show up even among the faithful?
How did Tolman’s contributions mark the beginning of the end of the behaviorist era?
How were mental processes evident even in rats running mazes?
What was the Cognitive Revolution?
GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY What is the basic concept of Gestalt psychology?
What is a gestalt?
How do Gestalt ideas pertain to perception?
Who were the pioneers of Gestalt theory?
Why is Gestalt theory important?
How did the holistic view of Gestalt theory go against the scientific worldview of the time?
What does “the whole is greater than the sum of its parts” mean?
How did William James’s functionalism anticipate Gestalt theory?
What other principles of perception come from Gestalt theory?
What were Wolfgang Köhler’s studies on insight learning?
What did Köhler’ studies with chimps show?
What is the difference between Gestalt psychology and Gestalt psychotherapy?
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY What is psychoanalytic theory?
What is Freud’s topological model?
What is the structural model?
What is Freud’s theory of libido?
What did Freud say about Thanatos, the death instinct?
Why was Freud so focused on sex?
What about Freud’s own Oedipal complex?
What is the Oedipal period?
How is Freudian theory seen today?
How has psychoanalytic theory changed over the years?
JUNGIAN ANALYTICAL PSYCHOLOGY Who was Carl Jung?
What was Jung’s relationship with Freud?
Why was Carl Jung interested in the Eastern practice of creating mandalas?
How did Jung’s view of the unconscious differ from Freud’s?
What are the personality traits that guide our conscious awareness?
What personality tests are derived from Jung’s theory of personality?
What are archetypes?
HUMANISTIC THEORIES What is humanistic psychology?
What philosophical and psychological schools influenced humanistic psychology?
What is meant by third force psychology?
Who was Abraham Maslow?
What did Maslow mean by self-actualization?
What did Maslow mean by peak experiences?
What is the difference between D-love and B-love?
What impact did humanistic psychology have on the practice of psychotherapy?
Who was Carl Rogers?
What did Rogers mean by unconditional positive regard?
What contributions to psychotherapy research did Carl Rogers make?
ATTACHMENT THEORY What is attachment theory?
Who was John Bowlby?
What was John Bowlby’s concept of attachment?
What was Bowlby’s concept of the internal working model?
How did Mary Ainsworth create a scientific means to measure attachment?
What does it mean to be securely attached?
What does it mean to be insecurely attached?
What are the ways that insecure attachment manifests?
Are insecurely attached children less attached to their parents than are securely attached children?
What kind of parenting results in securely attached babies?
What kind of parenting results in insecurely attached babies?
How might the principles of behaviorism apply to attachment theory?
What implications does attachment style have for later child development?
How did Mary Main apply attachment theory to adults?
When is attachment status more likely to change?
What is the adult attachment interview?
How can the three child attachment styles be mapped onto Mary Main’s three adult attachment styles?
What are some examples of adult attachment interviews?
Dismissing
Secure
Preoccupied
How do securely attached adults act?
What characterizes dismissing adults?
How do preoccupied adults behave?
What is self-reflective functioning and how does it relate to attachment?
SOCIOBIOLOGY AND EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY What is sociobiology?
What is evolutionary psychology?
What is the theory of evolution?
How important is evolutionary theory to the biological sciences?
Why was the theory of evolution controversial?
Is the theory of evolution still controversial?
Who was Charles Darwin?
What is natural selection?
What does evolutionary fitness mean?
How is reproductive success relevant to evolution?
What does survival of the fittest mean?
What did Gregor Mendel contribute to the theory of evolution?
What did Watson and Crick contribute to the theory of evolution?
How does the theory of evolution connect with natural selection?
What is Lamarckian evolution?
How does evolution affect animal behavior?
Who is Edward O. Wilson?
Why was sociobiology considered controversial when it first came out?
What is the difference between proximate and ultimate causation?
If our behavior is genetically determined, where does learning come in?
What is Social Darwinism?
How do evolutionary theorists understand altruism?
How do evolutionary theorists understand sexual behavior of males and females?
Are men inherently polygamous?
What is sexual selection?
So, is evolution only about competition?
Do females compete for males?
How do scientists test the evolutionary significance of behavior?
How do twin studies help illuminate the role of genetics?
NEUROBIOLOGICAL THEORIES What are neurobiological theories of psychology?
What is neuropsychology?
How do neurobiological theories of psychology dovetail with evolutionary psychology?
How do advances in brain imaging technology affect neurobiological theories of psychology?
How does a PET scan work?
How does an fMRI work?
What is the difference between a structural MRI and functional MRI (fMRI)?
What does an EEG measure?
What other kind of brain imaging technologies are there?
What advances have been made in gene studies?
What are the limitations of gene studies?
What are the problems with correlational studies?
What are association, necessity, and sufficiency in neurobiological research?
COGNITIVE SCIENCE What is cognitive science?
What is artificial intelligence?
PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE What is the purpose of psychological research?
Is psychological research ever completely objective?
What is a variable?
What are the major methods used in psychological research?
How have laws changed to protect people from abusive scientific experiments?
Do all psychological studies use numbers?
How do the methods of the social sciences differ from those of the hard sciences?
Why is sample selection important in psychological research?
What are statistics and how do they work?
What are measures of central tendency?
What is the difference between the median and the mean and why does it matter?
What is the standard deviation?
What does it mean to say that a finding is statistically significant?
How do we compare mean values across different groups?
What does correlation mean?
What does a study confound mean?
Why do we covary for certain variables?
What are the advantages of multivariate analysis?
What are the critical concepts one needs to know when interpreting the results of a study?
PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS What role do psychological tests play in the science of psychology?
What are the different kinds of tests?
How are tests and measurements developed?
What are some examples of test questions that measure emotional or behavioral traits?
What does it mean to say a test is reliable?
What does it mean to say a test is valid?
Can you have reliability without validity?
What is the Rorschach inkblot test?
What criticisms have been leveled at the Rorschach?
How did Exner’s system improve the Rorschach’s scientific legitimacy?
How does the R-PAS update the Exner system?
What is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)?
What is the Minnesota Multiphasic Inventory (MMPI)?
INTELLIGENCE TESTING What is an IQ test?
What does it mean to say that an IQ test is normed?
What is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence (WAIS) IQ test?
What are the four index scores of the WAIS-IV?
Does the WAIS measure intelligence?
Is there agreement on what intelligence means?
What are the best ways to reduce cultural bias in IQ tests?
Are there other kinds of intelligence that the WAIS doesn’t measure?
What were the Alpha and Beta Tests developed by the U.S. Army?
Who devised the first intelligence test?
What was the Binet-Simon test?
What is the Stanford-Binet intelligence test?
What were the problems with the early IQ tests?
THE BRAIN: ANATOMY AND DEVELOPMENT
BASIC CONCEPTS IN NEUROSCIENCE Why do we study the brain?
What do neuroscientists assume about brain evolution and how does that influence our understanding of the brain?
What are the costs and benefits of brain complexity?
How costly is our brain?
What terminology is important in brain anatomy?
How do the Latin terms differ from the English ones?
What have we learned from animals?
What does the word phylogeny mean?
THE MAJOR STRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN What are the major structures of the brain?
THE CORTEX Why is the cortex so wrinkled?
What are the four lobes of the cortex?
What is the frontal lobe?
What do the other cortical lobes do?
How do Brodmann areas map the cortex?
Do both sides of the brain do the same thing?
BENEATH THE CORTEX What is the limbic system?
What do the amygdala and the hypothalamus do?
What does the hippocampus do?
What do the other limbic structures do?
What are the regions of the brain and their functions?
What are the basal ganglia?
What does the thalamus do?
What is the brain stem?
What is the triune model?
THE NEURON What is a neuron?
What are the input and output sections of the cell?
What is a synapse?
What are neurotransmitters and what do they do?
How do neurons fire?
What is the difference between white matter and gray matter?
BRAIN DEVELOPMENT THE HUMAN BRAIN ACROSS EVOLUTION How has the human brain changed across evolution?
How has the human cortex grown compared to other animals?
Do the different brain regions ever perform redundant functions?
Has the frontal lobe grown across human evolution?
How has the olfactory bulb changed across human evolution?
THE BRAIN SINCE EARLY HOMINIDS When did human beings evolve from early hominids?
How do we compare our brains with those of extinct species?
How has brain size changed from early hominids?
Has the frontal lobe increased?
What do we know about Neanderthals?
What does pedomorphy mean?
What does “phylogeny recapitulates ontogeny” mean?
THE BRAIN IN UTERO How does the brain develop in utero?
What is the neural tube?
What does the hindbrain become?
What does the midbrain become?
What does the forebrain become?
What does the diencephalon turn into?
What develops from the telencephalon?
What impact does brain injury have during fetal development?
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