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Louis Theodore. Introduction to Desalination
Introduction to Desalination. Principles, Processes, and Calculations
Brief Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Guide
Pages
Preface
Part I Introduction
1 Global Water Scarcity and the Need for “New Water” 1.1 Introduction
1.2 Water Availability and Water Sources
1.3 Global Water Resources
1.4 Global Water Resource Issues
1.5 History of Desalination
1.5.1 Evaporation Processes
1.5.2 Membrane Processes
1.5.3 Crystallization Processes
1.6 Summary Observations
1.7 Illustrative Examples
1.7.1 Illustrative Example 1
1.7.2 Illustrative Example 2
1.7.3 Illustrative Example 3
1.7.4 Illustrative Example 4
1.7.5 Illustrative Example 5
1.8 Problems
References
2 Technical Glossary. 2.1 Introduction
2.2 Glossary
Reference
3 Engineering Principles. 3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Metric System
3.2.1 Length – Meter (m)
3.2.2 Mass – Kilogram (kg)
3.2.3 Time – Seconds (s)
3.2.4 Electrical Current – Ampere (A)
3.2.5 Temperature – Kelvin (K)
3.2.6 Amount of a Substance – Mole (mol)
3 .2.7 Luminous Intensity – Candela (cd)
3.2.8 Supplementary Units
3.3 SI Multiples and Prefixes
3.4 Conversion Constants
3.5 Dimensional Analysis
3.6 Flow Diagrams
3.7 Significant Figures and Approximate Numbers
3.8 Generic Problem Solving Techniques
3.8.1 Understanding the Problem
3.8.2 Devising a Plan for the Solution
3.8.3 Carrying Out the Plan
3.8.4 Looking Back and Checking the Problem Solution
3.9 Illustrative Examples
3.9.1 Illustrative Example 1
3.9.2 Illustrative Example 2
3.9.3 Illustrative Example 3
3.9.4 Illustrative Example 4
3.9.5 Illustrative Example 5
3.10 Problems
References
4 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of Materials. 4.1 Introduction
4.2 Fundamental Definitions
4.2.1 Fluids
4.2.2 Temperature
4.2.3 Pressure
4.2.4 Moles and Molecular Weight
4.3 Physical Properties. 4.3.1 Density
4.3.2 Viscosity
4.3.3 Heat Capacity
4.3.4 Thermal Conductivity
4.3.5 Diffusivity
4.3.6 Vapor Pressure
4.3.7 Boiling Point
4.3.8 Freezing Point
4.3.9 Surface Tension
4.4 Chemical Properties. 4.4.1 Flammability (or Explosion) Limit
4.4.2 Flash Point
4.4.3 Autoignition Temperature (AIT)
4.4.4 Heat (Enthalpy) of Reaction
4.4.5 Heat (Enthalpy) of Combustion
4.4.6 Gross Heating Value
4.4.7 Net Heating Value
4.4.8 Theoretical Adiabatic Flame Temperature (TAFT)
4.5 Property Estimation
4.6 Biological Properties. 4.6.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD or BOD5)
4.6.2 Ultimate Oxygen Demand (UOD or BODu)
4.6.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
4.7 Properties of Mixtures. 4.7.1 pH
4.7.2 Partial Pressure
4.7.3 Humidity
4.7.4 Concentration Terms
4.8 Process Concepts
4.8.1 Reynolds Number
4.8.2 Kinetic Energy
4.8.3 Potential Energy
4.8.4 Ideal Gas Law
4.8.5 Phase Equilibrium
4.9 Illustrative Examples. 4.9.1 Illustrative Example 1
4.9.2 Illustrative Example 2
4.9.3 Illustrative Example 3
4.9.4 Illustrative Example 4
4.9.5 Illustrative Example 5
4.9.6 Illustrative Example 6
4.9.7 Illustrative Example 7
4.10 Problems
References
5 Water Properties. 5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Hydrologic Cycle
5.3 The Triple Point of Water
5.4 Water Steam Tables
5.5 Psychrometry and the Psychrometric Chart
5.6 Illustrative Examples
5.6.1 Illustrative Example 1
5.6.2 Illustrative Example 2
5.6.3 Illustrative Example 3
5.6.4 Illustrative Example 4
5.6.5 Illustrative Example 5
5.6.6 Illustrative Example 6
5.6.7 Illustrative Example 7
5.6.8 Illustrative Example 8
5.7 Problems
References
6 Water Chemistry. 6.1 Introduction
6.2 Physical Properties of Water
6.3 Chemical Properties of Water
6.4 Chemical Composition of Natural Waters
6.4.1 Dissolved Minerals
6.4.2 Dissolved Gases
6.4.3 Heavy Metals
6.4.4 Organic Constituents
6.4.5 Nutrients
6.5 Chemical Reactions
6.6 Illustrative Examples. 6.6.1 Illustrative Example 1
6.6.2 Illustrative Example 2
6.6.3 Illustrative Example 3
6.6.4 Illustrative Example 4
6.6.5 Illustrative Example 5
6.7 Problems
References
7 The Conservation Laws, Stoichiometry, and Thermodynamics. 7.1 Introduction
7.2 The General Conservation Law
7.3 The Conservation Law for Momentum
7.4 The Conservation Law for Mass
7.5 The Conservation Law for Energy
7.6 Stoichiometry
7.7 Thermodynamics
7.8 Enthalpy Effects
7.8.1 Sensible Enthalpy Effects
7.8.2 Latent Enthalpy Effects
7.8.3 Enthalpy of Mixing
7.8.4 Chemical Reaction Enthalpy Effects
7.9 Phase Equilibrium
7.10 Illustrative Examples
10.1 Illustrative Example 1
10.2 Illustrative Example 2
10.3 Illustrative Example 3
10.4 Illustrative Example 4
10.5 Illustrative Example 5
10.6 Illustrative Example 6
10.7 Illustrative Example 7
7.11 Problems
References
8 Unit Operations. 8.1 Introduction
8.2 Quantitative Approaches
8.3 Unit Operation Classification
8.4 Mass Transfer
8.4.1 Contact of Immiscible Phases
8.4.1.1 Gas–Gas
8.4.1.2 Gas–Liquid
8.4.1.3 Gas–Solid
8.4.1.4 Liquid–Liquid
8.4.1.5 Liquid–Solid
8.4.1.6 Solid–Solid
8.4.2 Miscible Phases Separated by a Membrane
8.4.2.1 Gas–Gas
8.4.2.2 Liquid–Liquid
8.4.2.3 Solid–Solid
8.4.3 Direct Contact of Miscible Phases
8.4.4 Mass Transfer Equipment
8.4.4.1 Distillation
8.4.4.2 Adsorption
8.4.4.3 Absorption
8.4.4.4 Extraction
8.4.4.5 Drying
8.5 Heat Transfer
8.6 Fluid Flow
8.7 Key Fluid Flow Equations. 8.7.1 Total Energy Equation
8.7.2 The Bernoulli Equation
8.8 Illustrative Examples
8.8.1 Illustrative Example 1
8.8.2 Illustrative Example 2
8.8.3 Illustrative Example 3
8.8.4 Illustrative Example 4
8.8.5 Illustrative Example 5
8.8.6 Illustrative Example 6
8.8.7 Illustrative Example 7
8.9 Problems
References
Part II Desalination and Water Treatment Processes
9 The Desalination Process. 9.1 Introduction
9.2 Basics of Desalination
9.3 Energy Options
9.3.1 Natural Gas
9.3.2 Solar Energy
9.3.3 Nuclear Energy
9.3.4 Geothermal Energy
9.4 Separation Options
9.4.1 Evaporation
9.4.2 Reverse Osmosis
9.4.3 Freeze Crystallization
9.4.4 Adsorption
9.4.5 Ion Exchange
9.4.6 Extraction
9.5 Traditional Desalination Processes
9.5.1 Evaporation Processes
9.5.2 Reverse Osmosis
9.5.3 Crystallization
9.5.4 New Options for Water Desalination
9.6 Illustrative Examples
9.6.1 Illustrative Example 1
9.6.2 Illustrative Example 2
9.6.3 Illustrative Example 3
9.6.4 Illustrative Example 4
9.6.5 Illustrative Example 5
9.6.6 Illustrative Example 6
9.7 Problems
References
10 Evaporation. 10.1 Introduction
10.2 Principles of Heat Transfer and Evaporation
10.3 Classification of Heat Transfer Equipment
10.4 Classification of Evaporators
10.4.1 Simple Evaporators
10.4.2 Flash Evaporator
10.5 Multiple-effects Evaporators
10.6 Thermocompression
10.7 Evaporator Describing Equations
10.8 Illustrative Examples
10.8.1 Illustrative Example 1
10.8.2 Illustrative Example 2
10.8.3 Illustrative Example 3
10.8.4 Illustrative Example 4
10.8.5 Illustrative Example 5
10.8.6 Illustrative Example 6
10.8.7 Illustrative Example 7
10.8.8 Illustrative Example 8
10.9 Problems
References
11 Reverse Osmosis. 11.1 Introduction
11.2 Introduction to Reverse Osmosis
11.3 The Role of Osmosis
11.4 Reverse Osmosis Process Equipment
11.5 Describing Equations
11.6 Other Membrane Separation Processes
11.6.1 Ultrafiltration
11.6.2 Microfiltration
11.6.3 Gas Permeation
11.7 Applications
11.8 Illustrative Examples
11.8.1 Illustrative Example 1
11.8.2 Illustrative Example 2
11.8.3 Illustrative Example 3
11.8.4 Illustrative Example 4
11.8.5 Illustrative Example 5
11.8.6 Illustrative Example 6
11.9 Problems
References
12 Crystallization. 12.1 Introduction
12.2 The Crystallization Process
12.3 Crystal Physical Characteristics
12.4 Crystallization Equipment
12.5 Describing Equations
12.6 Design Considerations
12.7 Illustrative Examples
12.7.1 Illustrative Example 1
12.7.2 Illustrative Example 2
12.7.3 Illustrative Example 3
12.7.4 Illustrative Example 4
12.7.5 Illustrative Example 5
12.7.6 Illustrative Example 6
12.7.7 Illustrative Example 7
12.8 Problems
References
13 Traditional Desalination Processes. 13.1 Introduction
13.2 The GADUTH Solar Evaporation Systems
13.2.1 The GADUTH Solar Evaporation Process
13.2.2 The GADUTH Greenhouse Solar Evaporator (Ganiaris et al. 2018)
13.3 The Theodore Humidification/Dehumidification Processes
13.3.1 The Theodore HUMidification Process (THUMP)
13.3.2 The GADUTH Dewdrop Process
13.4 Hybrid Systems
13.5 Other Non-commercial Desalination Processes
13.6 Illustrative Examples
13.6.1 Illustrative Example 1
13.6.2 Illustrative Example 2
13.6.3 Illustrative Example 3
13.6.4 Illustrative Example 4
13.6.5 Illustrative Example 5
13.6.6 Illustrative Example 6
13.6.7 Illustrative Example 7
13.7 Problems
References
14 New Desalination Processes. 14.1 Introduction
14.2 The Theodore Simple Still (THESS)
14.3 The Heat Conduit Evaporation (HCE) Process
14.4 The Geothermal Evaporator (GEO) Process
14.5 The GADUTH Liquid Natural Gas Freeze Desalination Process (FDP)
14.6 The GADUTH Mangrove Process
14.7 Legal Considerations
14.8 Future Prospects
14.9 Illustrative Examples
14.9.1 Illustrative Example 1
14.9.2 Illustrative Example 2
14.9.3 Illustrative Example 3
14.9.4 Illustrative Example 4
14.9.5 Illustrative Example 5
14.9.6 Illustrative Example 6
14.10 Problems
References
15 Non-Desalination Processes. 15.1 Introduction
15.2 Water Obtained from Fossil Fuels (WOFF)
15.3 Water Harvested from Contaminated Flow Streams
15.4 Other Sources
15.4.1 The Atmosphere
15.4.2 Inorganic Chemicals
15.4.3 Salinization
15.5 Illustrative Examples
15.5.1 Illustrative Example 1
15.5.2 Illustrative Example 2
15.5.3 Illustrative Example 3
15.5.4 Illustrative Example 4
15.5.5 Illustrative Example 5
15.5.6 Illustrative Example 6
15.6 Problems
References
Part III Select Related Topics
16 Water Conservation. 16.1 Introduction
16.2 Quantifying Water Use
16.3 Water Waste
16.4 Water Conservation in the Power Generation Sector
16.5 Water Conservation in the Agricultural Sector
16.6 Water Conservation in the Domestic Sector
16.7 Water Conservation in the Industrial Sector
16.8 Illustrative Examples
16.8.1 Illustrative Example 1
16.8.2 Illustrative Example 2
16.8.3 Illustrative Example 3
16.8.4 Illustrative Example 4
16.8.5 Illustrative Example 5
16.8.6 Illustrative Example 6
16.9 Problems
References
17 Economic Considerations. 17.1 Introduction
17.2 The Subject of Economics
17.3 Definitions
17.3.1 Simple Interest
17.3.2 Compound Interest
17.3.3 Present Worth
17.3.4 Time Value of Money
17.3.5 Depreciation
17.3.6 Equipment Cost Indices
17.3.7 Capital Recovery Factor
17.3.8 Net Present Worth
17.3.9 Perpetual Life
17.3.10 Breakeven Point
17.3.11 Approximate Rate of Return
17.3.12 Exact Rate of Return
17.3.13 Bonds
17.3.14 Incremental Cost
17.4 The Need for an Economic Analysis
17.5 Capital Investment and Risk
17.6 Guidelines for Purchasing Equipment
17.7 Application to Industrial Users
17.8 Illustrative Examples
17.8.1 Illustrative Example 1
17.8.2 Illustrative Example 2
17.8.3 Illustrative Example 3
17.8.4 Illustrative Example 4
17.8.5 Illustrative Example 5
17.8.6 Illustrative Example 6
17.9 Problems
References
18 Optimization Considerations. 18.1 Introduction
18.2 The Scope of Optimation
18.3 General Analytical Formulation of Optimization Problems
18.4 Mathematical Concepts in Linear Programming
18.5 Applied Concepts in Linear Programming
18.6 Engineering Applications in Optimization
18.7 Optimization of Existing Systems
18.8 Illustrative Examples
18.8.1 Illustrative Example 1
18.8.2 Illustrative Example 2
18.8.3 Illustrative Example 3
18.8.4 Illustrative Example 4
18.8.5 Illustrative Example 5
18.8.6 Illustrative Example 6
18.9 Problems
References
19 Ethical Considerations. 19.1 Introduction
19.2 The Present State of Ethics
19.3 The Ethics of Water Access
19.4 Do’s and Don’ts
19.5 Integrity
19.6 Moral Issues
19.7 Guardianship
19.8 Engineering and Environmental Ethics (Theodore and Theodore 2021)
19.9 Environmental Justice
19.10 Future Trends in Professional and Environmental Ethics
19.11 Illustrative Examples
19.11.1 Illustrative Example 1
19.11.2 Illustrative Example 2
19.11.3 Illustrative Example 3
19.11.4 Illustrative Example 4
Questions for Discussion
19.12 Problems
Questions for Discussion
References
20 The Future of Desalination. 20.1 Introduction
20.2 The Role of Conservation
20.3 The Role of Energy Use
20.4 The Role of Operation and Maintenance
20.5 The Role of Government
20.6 The Role of Risk Assessment
20.7 Terrorism and Water Security
20.8 Predicting Future Water Demands
20.9 Epilogue
References
Index
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