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Michael Coulson. The History of Mining
Publication details
About the author
Foreword
Acknowledgements
Preface
A note on currencies and metals prices
Introduction
1. The Stone Age. In the beginning
Tools and weapons
Mining
2. The Bronze Age
Mining methods
Extracting metal
3. The Iron Age
4. China
Mining at Tonglushan
Mining at other sites
Significant historical Chinese metal developments
5. Early Mining in India
6. Mining in Ancient Egypt
Stone quarries
Metals in the desert
Mining for precious gold
7. The Eastern Mediterranean and the Near/Middle East
Jordan
Greece
Asia Minor
Persia, the Empire and Iran
8. The Roman Republic and Empire
Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD)
The site today of the Las Medulas gold mine in Leon, Spain which was mined in Roman times from the first century AD
Rome’s Spanish mines
Organisation of Roman mines
9. Great Britain
Cornish tin
Mining in Wales
Coal mining
Base metals
10. Central/Eastern Europe. The eastern Alps
Germany
The Balkans
Other mining regions
11. North America
12. South America
Chile
Peru
13. Africa
14. The Structure of Ownership and Operation
15. Conclusion
A virtually unchanged industry
1. Introduction
Developments in mine finance
Society and technology
2. Mining in Central Europe
Twig divining and trenching for minerals in Germany in the Middle Ages
Georgius Agricola (1494-1555)
Silver
Lead, tin and copper
German iron ore miners in the Middle Ages in the Harz Mountains using the overhand stoping method
Development of mining techniques
3. Scandinavia
Norway
Sweden and Finland
4. France
The Paris Basin
5. Great Britain
6. Spain
7. The Lure of Africa
8. The Opening up of North America
The Spanish arrive
New Mexico copper
Searching for gold and finding base metals
Iron ore
John Winthrop Jr. (1606-1676)
Mining for lead
9. Gold, Silver and the Spanish Conquistadors
Hernando Cortez (1485-1547)
Gold and silver; the downfall of Spain
Mining methods
Craftmanship
10. Chile
11. The East
China
12. Diamond Mines in India and Brazil
India
Brazil
13. Conclusion
1. Introduction
2. Diamonds in South Africa
Early tensions between British and Boers
The Randlords
Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902)
Cecil Rhodes painted by Sir Luke Fildes, a portrait which Rhodes hated
Robinson, the loner
Problems at the Kimberley diggings
The Randlords pursue amalgamation
Rhodes seeks consolidation at the diggings
The Big Pit at Kimberley in 1875 before Rhodes consolidated the workings
Barnato battles Rhodes for control at Kimberley
Barney Barnato (1852-1897)
The French Company falls to Rhodes
Final consolidation of the diamond fields
The Kimberley diamond pipe in South Africa with its hundreds of individual claims and extensive network of haulage ropes, 1877
3. The Gold Rushes of the 19th Century. California. The forerunner in North Carolina
From sawmill to gold rush
The rush accelerates
Hydraulic mining with pressure hoses in the Californian Sierras. Circa 1850s. How the prospectors got to California
The economic aspects of California’s gold
The rush matures
Other American gold rushes.. Pikes Peak, Colorado
Idaho and Oregon
Cripple Creek, Colorado
Lead in South Dakota
George Hearst (1820-1891)
The Homestake mine
The Carolinas
…and silver too
The Comstock Lode
Other silver states
The Witwatersrand
A throbbing Eloff Street, Johannesburg in 1905, just thirty years after the first Witwatersrand gold discovery
The early years
The rise of the Witwatersrand
The Witwatersrand gold field opens up
Political events surrounding Witwatersrand gold
South African gold shares in the 19th century
Bettington’s Horse gathers outside the headquarters of Gold Fields in Johannesburg before their aborted mission to rescue Dr Jameson, 1898
Western Australia
Development of Australian gold mining
Gold at Kalgoorlie
Paddy Hannan (1840-1925)
The tree which today marks the site of Paddy Hannon’s 1893 gold discovery, Kalgoorlie, Western Australia (inset, plaque detailing the discovery)
Importance of outside investment
Problems in the goldfields
Speculation over Kalgoorlie gold
Australian gold production by state (1851-1886)
The Klondike
Before the Klondike rush
Prospectors climb the Chilkoot Pass on their way to the Klondike, 1898
The setting off of the Klondike rush
The hard realities of the rush
Increased mechanisation and the end of the rush
4. Russia’s Gold
Gold exploration success
The Amur region
The Lensky district
After 1922
5. Spain - Europe’s mining leader
Lead
Copper
Iron
6. The Emergence of Canada
Early mineral discoveries
7. Latin America
Disraeli, the speculator
Mexico
Colombia
Brazil
Morro Vehlo
The Cornish influence
Peru
Chile
John North (1842-1896)
8. Copper and other mineral riches in the USA
Technology drives the copper search
Getting the first copper to eastern markets
The first railway built in 1873 to access the Bingham Canyon copper mine in Utah, now operated by Rio Tinto. The great Anaconda
South to Arizona
Magma Copper’s Silver Queen mine in Arizona in 1871 which latterly became the expanded Superior copper mine
The dream of diamonds
Lead expansion
Bunker Hill, Idaho
Metals and the advance of civilsation
9. Mining in the East
Japan as a mining nation
Copper
Modernisation and accompanying problems
Gold
Other aspects of the industrialisation strategy – iron, steel and coal
Malayan tin
Loke Yew (1845-1917)
Tin in Thailand and Indonesia
Borneo diamonds
10. King Coal
Coal in the UK
Thomas Powell (1779-1863)
Coal use expands
The source of Britain’s coal
Historic coal mining in Britain
18th century expansion
Mining conditions
French coal mining
Belgium
Germany
The rest of Europe
The United States
Ohio coal production (1850-1996)
Coal in Wyoming
South Africa
Sammy Marks (1844-1920)
Rising mine output fuels SA coal demand
Asia and the Far East
India
China
Australia and New Zealand
11. Conclusion
1. Broken Hill and other Australian giants
Broken Hill. Silver is discovered
Broken Hill is born
Development starts
Overseas capital begins to flow
Building BHP
BHP turns to steel and the Collins House Group turns to Broken Hill
William Baillieu (1859-1963)
Smelting expansion and Collins House
The huge Broken Hill mining and treatment complex in New South Wales. Circa 1915-20
Mount Isa
Prospecting at Isa
Development, listing and the 1930s depression
Copper
Expansion, coal and a merger
Olympic Dam
The long gestation
The Long nickel mine, Kambalda, Western Australia, currently operated by Independence Group but originally discovered by Western Mining in the 1970s. A story of expansion
Lesser lights
Copper, gold and uranium in Queensland
Misty Tasmania
Mount Lyell copper mine in Tasmania at its zenith in the 1920s
2. Canadian century
The early decades of gold
Kirkland Lake
Larder Lake
Porcupine
Noah Timmins (1867-1936)
Red Lake
More than gold
Sullivan
The Horne
Flin Flon
After the Second World War
Kidd Creek
Hemlo
Copper in British Columbia
The crazy 90s – Lac de Gras to Bre-X
Timbuktu
Cartaway
The Bre-X caper
From Frobisher to Southwestern
3. The Development of Mining Technology
Edison’s magnetometer
Geophysics
Mapping
Ore sorting
Shaft sinking
Mechanisation
Mechanical lifts and hoists
Declines
Open pit mines
Mining machinery
international mining equipment manufacturers
4. Diamonds
South West Africa
Diamonds in the desert
August Stauch (mounted second from left) leads the expedition which found the Pomona diamond field in South West Africa (Namibia) in 1908
August Stauch (1878-1947)
The German authorities take an interest
The Pomona discovery
De Beers reaches a marketing agreement…
…but Anglo American take over the mines
Sir Ernest Oppenheimer (1880-1957)
Sir Ernest Oppenheimer (1880-1957), founder of Anglo American. Namaqualand opens up
De Beers takes an interest
Offshore diamonds
Diamonds in the Second World War and after
The Age of De Beers
Maintaining stable diamond prices
The Williamson headache
Botswana
Finally De Beers finds a diamond mine
De Beers’ biggest revenue source
De Beers and Ashton Mining
Lac de Gras
Chuck Fipke
Eira Thomas
De Beers reorganises
The Bain review
De Beers goes private
The end of the Oppenheimers
The diamond revolution
5. Copper in Central Africa
Rhodes in central Africa
Belgium versus Britain, with a little African help
The importance of copper
The development of Northern Rhodesia’s copperbelt
The African workers compound at the Nkana Mine in Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) in 1929
Bancroft’s exploration programme
J. Austen Bancroft (1882-1957)
The Nchanga discovery
The British retreat begins
Zambia nationalises the copper mines
Zaire’s output collapses
6. Other nationalisations in the 1960s and before
Bolivia
The Cerro Ricco silver mines in Potosi, Bolivia, still in production in 2011 after four centuries
Mauricio Hochschild (1881-1965)
Chile
Peru
Cuba
7. The Australian Nickel Boom
A financial event
Post-war exploration
The Kambalda discoveries
The rise of Poseidon
Crazy Christmas 1969
The boom begins to ebb
A modest mining event
8. The Mining Promoters
Horatio Bottomley
Claude de Bernales
Harold Lasseter (1880-1931)
Other promoters including Disraeli
A female mining promoter
9. Gold Comes To The Fore Again
Gold and inflation
South Africa
gold producing countries
South African gold production and grades (1900-2010)
20-year gold price history in US Dollars per ounce
Brett Kebble (1964-2005)
Problems ahead for South Africa
Capital raising
Consolidation in SA
Gold elsewhere in Africa
Ghana
Mali
Tanzania
Rise of the open pit
The Australian revival
Australian gold production (1851-2000)
New Zealand
Gold rushes today
The Brazilians again
No class divides
The new world gold giants
top ten gold producing companies (2010)
10. Platinum
How platinum’s role and understanding of the metal has changed
A metal of the 20th century and beyond
Rustenburg Platinum
Hans Merensky (1871-1952)
Post-war platinum boom
Other producers emerge
11. Iron Ore
Australia
Lang Hancock (1910-1992)
Opening up the Pilbara
Industry growth continues
The political significance of the Pilbara
Brazil
Indigenous control
Carajas in the Amazon
Eliezer Batista
Vale and friends
Iron ore in the East
The growing African industry
South Africa
Mauritania, Sierra Leone and Guinea
Algeria
Europe’s coal and steel community
world steel production by country in 1905
12. Chile: King of Copper. American involvement
Potrerillos
Chuquicamata
Blasting at the vast Chuquicamata copper mine in Chile in the late 1960s
Daniel Guggenheim (1856-1930)
Andina
Return of private capital
Andronico Luksic (1926-2005)
13. The Rise of Uranium
The beginning
Canada and Australia
Opposition in Australia
Canada
The rise of Kazakhstan
World production figures. uranium mine production by country (2003-2011)
uranium company output (2011)
The future of uranium
Environmental heat
14. Coal in the Western Economies
The US
Wyoming the giant
Great Britain
Leading the world… just
The British government intervenes and finally nationalises
Decline begins
Oil and gas, then privatisation
South Africa
Coal pricing, quality and safety
Industrial problems
Competition and modernisation
Exporting for the war effort
Supplying the state
Disaster at Coalbrook
Cheap coal, cheap power
Expansion and exports
The oil crisis spurs coal
The rise of the open cut
Rapid expansion in the 1980s
India
The private sector gets a look-in…
…but still state controlled
Following the Chinese overseas
Indian coal producers (2011)
15. China
The foreign influence
Japanese imperialism
Coal
Prone to accidents
Mining today
Chinese mining output (2011)
Location of Chinese mining areas
location of China’s minerals
The Chinese look abroad
16. The Soviet Union
Foreign participation as the new century dawns
The rise of the Gulags
Norilsk
The search for indigenous diamonds
The growing gold industry
17. The Mighty USA
Aluminium
Gold
US gold mining in the 20th century
Nevada and Utah
Iron ore
Copper
18. European Mining
Poland
Spain
Ireland
Other parts of Europe
19. London Rises from the Ashes
The old ‘colonial’ companies leave
The end of exchange controls
Julian Baring (1936-2000)
The giants gather and head for the Footsie
FTSE 100 UK incorporated miners
The losers
20. The Environment
Aberfan
Low-grade mines lead to high volume waste
Disasters
Pollution
21. Mining and Labour
The first formal miners’ strike
Individualism and solidarity
The entrepreneurial tradition of prospecting
Camaraderie of danger
Loyalty has limits
The miner begins to prosper
22. Mining and the Media. The mining press
The early days
The UK
Australia
South Africa
Canada
The US
T.A. Rickard (1864-1953)
Muzzled by regulation?
The internet
Mining literature and film
Books
Films
Conclusion
The Future for Mining
Mining and Minerals Timeline
Glossary
Bibliography. The Ancient World
The Middle Ages to the Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution
The Modern Age
